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Invisiblecactu
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Registered: 03/06/06
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9504853 - 12/27/08 11:43 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

The truffle-like genus Rhizopogon is very closely related to the bolete genus Suillus  . In fact, Suillus appears to be much more closely related to Rhizopogon than to any other bolete genus. In this case, the DNA evidence suggest that both genera evolved from a common ancestor.
http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/truffle-like.html


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Invisiblecactu
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9504857 - 12/27/08 11:44 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Evolution of gilled mushrooms and puffballs inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences
Evolution of Gasteromycetes.

The nine species of Gasteromycetes that we examined occur in four separate lineages and appear to have been derived from both gilled and nongilled Hymenomycetes (Fig. 1). In addition, anatomical studies have suggested that as many as 14 lineages of Hymenomycetes have given rise to gasteromycetous false truffles and “secotioid” fungi, which are epigeous Gasteromycetes that resemble unexpanded mushrooms (23, 24). In several cases, such hypotheses have been supported by molecular studies. For example, previous studies have suggested that (i) the false truffles Rhizopogon and Chamonixia and the secotioid fungus Gastrosuillus are derived from within the Boletales (3, 12, 18, 25), (ii) the false truffle Hydnangium is closely related to the gilled mushroom Laccaria (4), and (iii) the secotioid fungi Podaxis and Montagnea are nested in the gilled mushroom family Coprinaceae (19). Taken together with our results, this suggests that Gasteromycetes have been repeatedly derived from Hymenomycetes, but there is no evidence that this transformation has ever been reversed.

Derivation of Gasteromycetes from Hymenomycetes involves the evolution of an enclosed hymenophore. In the gilled mushroom Lentinus tigrinus, there is a naturally occurring developmental mutant in which a recessive allele at a single locus confers a Gasteromycete-like enclosed hymenophore (26). Although the genetic basis of gasteromycetization in other lineages is unknown, the situation in L. tigrinus suggests that such transformations could be mediated by one or a small number of mutations in genes that have large phenotypic effects. The resemblance of secotioid Gasteromycetes to unopened mushrooms has led to suggestions that the initial steps in transformations from Hymenomycetes to Gasteromycetes are mutations that confer loss of function in developmental pathways, resulting in pedomorphosis (3, 23, 25). This view is consistent with observations of low levels of rDNA sequence divergence between certain secotioid fungi and closely related Hymenomycetes (3, 25).

In addition to the evolution of an enclosed hymenophore, derivation of Gasteromycetes from Hymenomycetes entails changes in the mechanisms of spore dispersal. Hymenomycetes discharge spores by a forcible mechanism, termed “ballistospory,” that is absent in Gasteromycetes. Structural features associated with ballistospory include short, curved sterigmata (the stalks that bear the spores), asymmetrical spores, and formation of a droplet of liquid at the base of the spore at the time of discharge (27). It appears that the suite of characters involved in ballistospory, once lost, has never been regained, which may explain why forms with exposed hymenophores have never been secondarily derived from Gasteromycetes.

In the absence of ballistospory, diverse spore dispersal mechanisms have evolved among Gasteromycetes (28). In puffballs, spores are produced internally and sift into the air through cracks or pores in the outer wall of the fruiting body (Fig. 2 D–F). Our results suggest that the puffball type fruiting body has evolved at least three times (Figs. 1 and 2). This is a conservative estimate because the taxonomically controversial puffballs Astraeus and Calostoma were not included in the analysis. In false truffles, spores are produced internally and are disseminated into soil as fruiting bodies break down and may also be dispersed by rodents that eat the fruiting bodies (29). As discussed above, molecular and morphological evidence suggests that false truffles also have multiple origins.

Other “solutions” to nonballistosporic dispersal appear to have arisen only once. In Nidulariales, spores are contained in packets (peridioles) that are dislodged from an upturned, concave fruiting body by a splash-cup mechanism (Figs. 1 and 2 G; ref. 30). The dislodged peridioles adhere to vegetation by means of a specialized hyphal cord and are thought to be dispersed by herbivores (30). In Phallales (represented in this study by Pseudocolus fusiformis), spores are dispersed by insects, especially Diptera. Spores develop within an initially enclosed fruiting body primordium but become exposed as the fruiting body expands. At maturity, a showy, flower-like structure is produced, which is lined by a dark, fetid slime in which the spores are suspended (Fig. 2 H). Finally, in Sphaerobolus, spores are produced in a glebal mass inside minute (≈1.5 mm in diameter) fruiting bodies. At maturity, the outer wall of the fruiting body splits open, and the inner wall suddenly evaginates, ejecting the spore mass up to 6 m (Fig. 2 I; ref. 31).

Our results suggest that Phallales, Sphaerobolus, and the puffball Geastrum form a monophyletic group (Fig. 1). With three radically different spore dispersal mechanisms, this clade provides a remarkable example of functional and morphological diversification. Although this group is not strongly supported by bootstrapping, it is nevertheless nested in a strongly supported, slightly more inclusive clade, which also includes the Hymenomycetes Gomphus, Ramaria, and Clavariadelphus. [This is consistent with results of unpublished analyses of nuc-lsu-rDNA and mt-lsu-rDNA sequences that suggest that Ramaria, Phallales, and Sphaerobolus are monophyletic (R. G. Thorn, personal communication, and J. Spatafora, Oregon State University, personal communication).]
http://www.pnas.org/content/94/22/12002.full


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Invisiblecactu
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9504913 - 12/27/08 11:58 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

look all this secotoid pnw hunters, post some if you find
thanks in advance:
Name: Alpova diplophloeus
Group: Basidiomycota, Boletaceae
Season: May-Dec.
Habitat: With alders
Spores: 4-6 x 1.8-2.8 µm, bacilliform, colorless
Features: Peridium tan and staining pink to red in youth where bruised, becoming reddish brown with age. Gleba solid, gelatinous, dull yellow with white marbling when first exposed but quickly turning dark reddish brown.
Comments: Always under alders; distributed broadly in North America and Europe. The change of color when the gleba is cut open occurs quickly. It is too small and flavorless to have much culinary value.

Name: Arcangeliella camphorata
Group: Basidiomycota, Russulaceae
Season: Oct-Mar.
Habitat: Douglas-fir
Spores: 8-10.5 x 7.5-9.5 µm, ellipsoid, with amyloid reticulation
Features: Rounded with a vestigial stem and columella; peridium light to deep reddish brown. Gleba of fresh, moist specimens produces a milky latex.
Comments: A hypogeous relative of the mushroom genus Lactarius, as indicated by its latex production. The odor of fresh specimens is mild, but despite the species name, dried specimens have an odor of maple syrup. It occurs west of the Cascade Range from southern Oregon to southern British Columbia.

Name: Arcangeliella crassa
Group: Basidiomycota, Russulaceae
Season: June-Oct.
Habitat: Douglas-fir, pines, true firs
Spores: 8-11 x 6.5-8 µm, ellipsoid, with amyloid reticulation
Features: In the shape of a mushroom but with a much reduced stem and locules instead of gills on the underside of the cap; peridium brownish white to light brown
Comments: A close relative of the mushroom genus Lactarius, it exudes a white latex where cut when fresh and moist. Found in the Cascade Mountains of northern Oregon south to California's central Sierras.

Name: Balsamia magnata
Group: Ascomycota, Helvellaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: Relatively warm sites with Douglas-fir, pines, true firs, possibly oaks.
Spores: 20-24 x 12-14 µm, long and cylindrical to ellipsoid, colorless, smooth
Features: Rounded with a cavity on top or sides, deep reddish brown, warty. Gleba grayish white with white veins that radiate to the cavity.
Comments: This cheerfully colored little truffle fruits from Oregon south to Southern California and east to Arizona. It is always pleasant to find but is too small and scarce to be useful as food.

Name: Barssia oregonensis
Group: Ascomycota, Helvellaceae
Season: Year-round but mostly late winter to late spring
Habitat: With relatively young Douglas-fir (generally 10 to 60 yrs old)
Spores: 32 x 18 µm, ellipsoid
Features: Peridium lumpy but smooth, pale pinkish cream to pinkish brown. Gleba pale with white veins firm and brittle; with cavity on top or one side.
Comments: This species occurs only in the Pacific Northwest where Douglas-fir is present. It commonly fruits in habitats that also produce Oregon white truffles and similarly seems not to occur in old-growth forests. It has a nice texture but little flavor when added raw to salads or cooked dishes.

Name: Cortinarius magnivelatus
Group: Basidiomycota, Cortinariaceae
Season: Apr-Sep.
Habitat: Montane with pine, true fir, hemlock
Spores: 9-14 x 6-8 um, elliptical, finely verrucose
Features: Hypogeous, with a distinct but reduced stem and contorted gills enclosed by a fibrillose-membranous veil.
Comments: This species is a true mushroom, not a truffle, but it never emerges above ground. Its vestigial stem and persistent veil that prevents escape of spores from the gills indicate an evolution towards a truffle-like ecology, i.e. depending on being eaten by small mammals or insects as a method of spore dispersal.

Name: Cystangium vesiculosum
Group: Basidiomycota, Russulaceae
Season: June-Nov, March
Habitat: Under Douglas-fir, hemlocks, spruces, true firs and pines
Spores: 10-14 x 8-11 µm, with strongly amyloid spines 1-2 µm long
Features: Peridium smooth, it and gleba white to pale cream color
Comments: Related to the mushroom genus Russula, this attractive, smooth truffle has little odor or taste and adds little to any dish in which it is added. Like Russula, it does not produce a latex. It occurs from northern California to Washington and Idaho from the Pacific Coast to middle elevations in the mountains.

Name: Elaphomyces granulatus
Group: Ascomycota, Elaphomycetaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With members of the pine family (i.e. Douglas-fir, spruces, true firs, hemlocks, etc.) and many broadleaved (oaks, beech, birch, etc.)
Spores: 24-60 µm, globose, with spines sometimes aggregated into warts
Features: Peridium minutely warty, thick, leathery, andsolid white to brown in cross section; spore mass black and powdery at maturity.
Comments: perhaps the most common and widely distributed of all truffles in the Northern Hemisphere, it is particularly abundant in boreal forests in deep humus or rotten wood. Its texture and powdery interior eliminate any culinary use.

Name: Elaphomyces muricatus
Group: Ascomycota, Elaphomycetaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With members of the pine family (i.e. Douglas-fir, true firs, hemlocks, etc.) and many broadleaved species such as oaks, beech, birch, etc.
Spores: 18-35 µm, globose, with spines sometimes aggregated into warts.
Features: Peridium with prominent warts thick, marbled pattern in cross section; spore mass black and powdery at maturity.
Comments: A close relative of Elaphomyces granulatus, this species occupies similar habitats and is also widely distributed but less common than the former. Neither have culinary value.

Name: Endogone flammicorona
Group: Zygomycota, Endogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With members of the pine family (i.e. Douglas-fir, true firs, hemlocks, etc.) and many broadleaved species such as oaks, beech, birch, etc
Spores: 52-120 x 42-99 µm, globose to ellipsoid or obovoid, each one enclosed within tightly appressed hyphae that in face view look like a fingerprint and in cross-section like a "crown of flames"
Features: Irregularly shaped; peridium thin and delicate in youth, collapsing by maturity; spores large enough to be easily seen with a hand lens.
Comments: Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, it is most often found in young stands. Sometimes it fruits by the tens of thousands in conifer nurseries. Too small and full of grit for use in cooking.

Name: Fevansia aurantiaca
Group: Basidiomycota, possibly Boletaceae
Season: Aug-Nov.
Habitat: Upper elevation Douglas-fir and true fir
Spores: 10-13 x 3.5-5 µm, smooth, fusiform
Features: Peridium pale orange. Gleba of yellow spherical locules.
Comments: This rare truffle has been found only in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon in relatively mature forests. Known from only 5 collections, it is one of the rarer species known. Its culinary value is unevaluated, but it does not have a distinct fragrance. Named after NATS founding member Frank Evans.

Name: Gastroboletus subalpinus
Group: Basidiomycota, Boletaceae
Season: Jul-Oct.
Habitat: Whitebark and lodgepole pines, true firs, mountain hemlocks at relatively high elevations to tree line
Spores: 10-18 x 4.5-8 µm, ellipsoid to oblong or ovate, smooth, colorless
Features: In the form of a contorted Boletus, with a very reduced stem and long, contorted, closed tubes; cap brown, stem dirty white; odor and taste similar to Boletus edulis.
Comments: Though not a truffle, this species is always hypogeous and represents the mushrooms that have mutated to a belowground habit. It is a truffle in the making and relies on being eaten for its spore dispersal.

Name: Gautieria monticola
Group: Basidiomycota, Gautieriaceae
Season: Mar-Nov.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, hemlocks, pines, true firs
Spores: 10-16 x 7-9 µm, elongate citriform, longitudinally ridged
Features: Peridium thin and disappearing early in development to reveal the outermost chambers of the firm, rubbery, cinnamon colored gleba with its inconspicuous to distinct white to translucent columella.
Comments: Among the more common spring and early summer truffles of western North American truffles, this species emits a strong, obnoxious odor when fully mature, especially when warmed such as in a car that has been sitting in the sun. When cooked, it loses the odor but also whatever other culinary value it might otherwise have had.

Name: Gautieria parksiana
Group: Basidiomycota, Gautieriaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, pines, hemlocks, true firs, spruces and oaks
Spores: 14-24 x 9.5-12 µm
Features: Irregularly globose with a well developed, persistent, white to brown, cottony peridium. Gleba firm, rubbery, cinnamon colored, with an obscure to prominent columella; base with a robust rhizomorph.
Comments: Low to high elevations in western North America but less common than G. monticola, from which it differs by its persistent peridium and larger spores. Its culinary value is similar to that of the latter species.

Name: Genabea cerebriformis
Group: Ascomycota, Pyronemataceae
Season: Mar-Oct.
Habitat: With pine, Douglas-fir, oak
Spores: 29-34 µm, globose, with densely crowded spines 2-3 µm tall
Features: Dull grayish yellow, convoluted and minutely warty with many chambers, rarely more than 1 cm broad, fragile and brittle.
Comments: "Cerebriformis," (in the form of a brain), aptly describes this petit truffle, which occurs in western North America. It develops a nice, garlicky fragrance at maturity but is too small and hard to clean for use in cooking.

Name: Genea harknessii
Group: Ascomycota, Pyronemataceae
Season: Mar-Oct.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, oaks
Spores: 25-32 x 21-29 µm, subglobose to ellipsoid, ornamented with cones mostly 1-3 µm tall and broad.
Features: Charcoal black, warty exterior and convoluted-hollow, the interior of the hollow also black and warty, the base with a thick tuft of hyphae; flesh thin, white to gray, fragile and brittle.
Comments: Odor at maturity garlicky, but specimens are hard to find and small, hence not usually found in enough quantity to use in cooking.

Name: Genea intermedia
Group: Ascomycota, Pyronemataceae
Season: Feb-Aug, mostly Apr-Jun.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, true firs and oaks
Spores: 36-40 µm, globose, ornamented with broad, rounded warts
Features: Vinaceous red, warty exterior and convoluted-hollow, the interior of the hollow also vinaceous and warty, lacking a basal tuft of hyphae; flesh white, fragile and brittle.
Comments: Small and lacking distinctive odor and flavor, but attractive to see.

Name: Geopora cooperi
Group: Ascomycota, Pyronemataceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With pines, Douglas-fir, true firs, hemlocks, larch
Spores: 16-21 µm, ellipsoid, smooth
Features: Peridium brown and minutely but distinctly hairy (use hand lens). Gleba white with some brown veins, of tightly contorted chambers.
Comments: The odor varies from undetectable to radish-like or garlicky. The surface hairs hold soil and sand grains, so if used in cooking it is best peeled. A second form is similar but has subglobose to globose spores.

Name: Gymnomyces abietus
Group: Basidiomycota, Russulaceae
Season: Aug-Dec.
Habitat: Montane to subalpine conifer forests with true fir
Spores: 8-14 x 7-11 µm, globose, with amyloid spines and often a partial reticulum
Features: Peridium white to yellowish. Gleba orange yellow.
Comments: Widely distributed in its habitats in the Cascade and Sierra Mountains. It has little odor or taste.

Name: Gymnomyces brunnescens
Group: Basidiomycota, Russulaceae
Season: Jul-Dec.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir
Spores: 8-12 x 8-10 µm, globose, with amyloid spines ± 1 µm tall
Features: Peridium white, bruising brown and becoming brown overall by maturity. Gleba initially brownish white, soon developing brown areas and at maturity brown overall.
Comments: One of the more common hypogeous fungi in Douglas-fir forests of western Washington, western Oregon and northern California, it has no distinctive odor or taste.

Name: Hydnangium carneum
Group: Basidiomycota, Tricholomataceae
Season: Nov-May
Habitat: With Eucalyptus
Spores: 10-18 µm, globose, spiny
Features: Peridium pinkish, felty. Gleba pink, often with sterile base and sometimes with a columella.
Comments: Closely related to the mushroom genius Laccaria, native to Australia but introduced around the world as a hitch-hiking symbiont on Eucalypt roots. Lacking distinctive odor or taste.

Name: Hydnotrya variiformis var. pallida
Group: Ascomycota, Discinaceae
Season: May-Oct.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, hemlocks, pines, true firs, often in well decomposed wood and other organic materials on the forest floor
Spores: 25-30 x 10-15 µm, ellipsoid, colorless to pale yellow and enclosed in an amorphous sheath decorated with scattered, tiny pits.
Features: White to cream color, convoluted with several chambers, fragile and brittle
Comments: This pale form is common in low to subalpine elevations, as is the equally common typical form that is orange brown and has orange brown spores. Neither form has a distinctive odor or flavor.

Name: Hymenogaster subalpinus
Group: Basidiomycota, Cortinariaceae
Season: Oct-Mar.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir at low to middle elevations
Spores: 20-30 x 14-16 µm, roughened, narrowly citriform with a truncate-cupped base
Features: Peridium dull brownish white to yellowish brown, bruising brown. Gleba dark brown, soft, with an unpleasant odor and soft texture.
Comments: The most common winter species in the Pacific Northwest, it is related to the mushroom genus Hebeloma. The odor may be pleasant to squirrels, but it definitely is not to humans. That, together with its soft texture, leaves it culinary appeal strictly to wild creatures.

Name: Hymenogaster sublilacinus
Group: Basidiomycota, Cortinariaceae
Season: Mar-Aug.
Habitat: Mostly pines and true firs but also other conifers and moderate to high elevations
Spores: 9-13 x 6.5-8 µm, ellipsoid, tawny brown, minutely warty
Features: Peridium initially white, then becoming lilac to violet, by maturity mostly yellowish brown. Gleba firm with small chambers, cinnamon colored. Odor pleasant, mild to sweet or resinous.
Comments: The fruiting bodies can be quite large and colorful, so it is always a pleasure to find them. The firm texture and pleasant fragrance suggest good possibilities for cooking, but no data have been found on that.

Name: Hysterangium coriaceum
Group: Basidiomycota, Hysterangiaceae
Season: Year-round, but mostly in spring
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, hemlocks, spruces, pines, true firs and larches
Spores: 11-14 x 4-5 µm, smooth, fusoid, enclosed in a wrinkled outer skin
Features: Peridium white bruising pink to red or rosy brown, separating easily from the dark olive green, very firm and rubbery gleba with its narrow, dendroid columella.
Comments: The most common spring truffle in the western USA, its colonies often produce dozens of small sporocarps nested in a white mycelium in the soil. Although it has little odor or flavor, its chewy texture provides an interesting additive to omelettes or scrambled eggs. A similar species, H. separabile, which has larger spores, occurs under oaks.

Name: Hysterangium crassirhachis
Group: Basidiomycota, Hysterangiaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, pines, hemlocks, spruces, true firs and larches
Spores: 11-15 x 4-5.5 µm, smooth, ellipsoid
Features: Peridium white bruising pink to brown, separating easily from the dark olive green, very firm and rubbery gleba with its usually thick, dendroid columella.
Comments: Similar to H. coriaceum in habitat, appearance and culinary value. The two species are only distinguishable by microscope.

Name: Hysterangium occidentale
Group: Basidiomycota, Hysterangiaceae
Season: Apr-Oct, mostly spring
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, pines and oaks low elevations
Spores: 12-16 x 5-8 µm, smooth, fusoid to narrowly citriform
Features: Subglobose to irregular, the peridium white to pale brown and bruising brown, easily separable from the firm, pink to pale, brownish red gleba with its rubbery columella; odor absent or pleasant.
Comments: Among the larger species of the genus (up to 6 cm broad), H. occidentale occurs from western Oregon through California to Arizona. It's size and pleasant fragrance might commend it for table use, but it is rather rare.

Name: Leucangium brunneum
Group: Ascomycota, Discinaceae
Season: Sep-Feb.
Habitat: With sapling to large Douglas-firs in moist forests
Spores: 45 x 30 µm, smooth, ellipsoid
Features: Up to 3 inches broad, lumpy; peridium orangish-brown, granular to warty. Gleba with gray pockets of spores separated by white veins, firm, with garlicky odor.
Comments: Known only from western Oregon and northern California in lowland to foothill forests, this species is popular for table use and is commercially harvested. It often fruits in the same places and times as L. carthusianum.

Name: Leucangium carthusianum
Group: Ascomycota, Discinaceae
Season: Sep-Feb.
Habitat: With relatively young Douglas-fir, often 4-10 inches deep in the soil
Spores: 65-80 x 25-40 µm, fusiform, smooth
Features: Peridium charcoal-black and warty. Gleba solid and firm, with gray pockets of spore-bearing tissue separated by white veins.
Comments: Originally described from France but more common in the western Pacific Northwest, it has become known as the "Oregon black truffle." With its pleasant, fruity aroma (most often resembling pineapple), it is prized for table use and commercially harvested.

Name: Leucogaster citrinus
Group: Basidiomycota, Leucogastraceae
Season: Jun-Nov.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, hemlocks, pines and true firs
Spores: 8-11 x 7-9 µm, subglobose to globose, reticulate, enclosed in a smooth, loosely fitting outer skin
Features: Peridium light yellow to dark yellow. Gleba white, firm, exuding a white sticky fluid when fresh, the locules round and 1-2 mm broad.
Comments: This species is endemic from northern California to southwestern Washington from the Cascade Range to the coastal mountains. It has a pleasant fragrance, but it's sticky exudates does not invite table use, and its flavor is negligible.

Name: Leucogaster rubescens
Group: Basidiomycota, Leucogastraceae
Season: May-Dec.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, hemlocks, pines, true firs
Spores: 10-15 x 10-13 µm, subglobose to globose, reticulate, enclosed in a smooth, loosely fitting outer skin sac
Features: Peridium yellow in youth, becoming brick-red, especially when dried. Gleba white, firm, exuding a white sticky fluid, locules round and 1-2 mm broad.
Comments: Generally similar to L. citrinus except for the red coloration developing on its peridium and larger spores, this species is common throughout western North America and has also been found occasionally in eastern Canada. Its culinary value is similar to L. citrinus.

Name: Leucophleps spinispora
Group: Basidiomycota, Leucogastraceae
Season: Jun-Dec.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, hemlocks, pines and true firs
Spores: 10-13 x 10-11 µm, globose, with crowded spines, colorless
Features: Peridium white. Gleba white, exuding a sticky, white fluid when moist, locules labyrinthine and ± 0.5 mm broad.
Comments: Distributed in western North America over a wide range of elevations, this usually small species is often abundant in habitats where it is fruiting. When fresh it has little odor or taste, but dried specimens often have a pronounced odor of celery salt. Its culinary value has not been reported.

Name: Macowanites luteolus
Group: Basidiomycota, Russulaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, hemlock, spruce
Spores: 7-12 x 6.5-10 µm, globose to subglobose, with amyloid spines
Features: Peridium pale yellow, often cracking. Gleba pale orange yellow, with a prominent, white columella and vestigial stipe; odor and taste mild.
Comments: Although recorded from western Oregon to Alaska at low to moderate elevations, this species is never abundant. Its minimal odor and taste render it uninteresting to the palate.

Name: Melanogaster tuberiformis
Group: Basidiomycota, Boletaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: Douglas-fir, pines, hemlocks, spruces and true firs
Spores: 10-15 x 6-9 µm, ellipsoid to ovoid
Features: Peridium dark brown, becoming nearly blackish brown at full maturity, thick, in wet weather often with dark brown droplets of fluid on the surface. Gleba gelatinous, black with whitish veins at maturity; odor oily-metallic with a touch of garlic.
Comments: Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, this species often fruits in huge numbers in a single colony. Many collectors enjoy it as food.

Name: Pyrenogaster pityophilus
Group: Basidiomycota, Geastraceae
Season: Dec-Jun.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, pines and oaks in dry, lowland forests and woodlands
Spores: 7-8 x 4-7 µm, finely warty, brown
Features: Globose to subglobose, felty, bruising pink. Gleba with a central, capitate columella from which radiate brown, elongated peridioles that contain the spores; the peridoles are easily teased apart. Odor mild.
Comments: First described from France, this peculiar species has since been found from southwest Oregon and California into Mexico. It's small size and strange gleba do not entice one to add it to the menu.

Name: Radiigera fuscogleba
Group: Basidiomycota, Geastraceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: Under Douglas-fir, pines, oaks, poplars, and many other kinds of trees at low to moderate elevations and warm sites
Spores: 4.5-8 µm broad, globose, finely warty, brown
Features: Peridium brown, thick and crisp, the surface felty. Gleba with a capitate columella from which fibers radiate out to connect with the peridium, everything white in youth, the spores born among the radiating fibres and, in mass at maturity, making that part of the gleba black and powdery.
Comments: Radiigera species are essentially earthstars (Geastrum spp.) that remain hypogeous and never open up. Small mammals dig them up to eat the thick peridium and discard the spores. Early collectors would find the discarded mass of spores and fibers lying loose on logs or tree limbs and misinterpret them as a slime mold. The black mass of spores and fibers would not excite the appetite of human diners.

Name: Rhizopogon ater
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Sep-Jan.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir in moist forests
Spores: 6-7 x 2.5-3 µm, ellipsoid, smooth
Features: Peridium dark brown to black. Gleba firm, charcoal grey to nearly black; odor mild to slightly sweet or onion-like.
Comments: Known only from Douglas-fir stands in western Oregon and southwestern Washington, this Rhizopogon is distinctive for its black or nearly black colors, which arise from deposits of black, granular crystals in its tissues. Its mild flavor and aroma would add little more than texture to a dish.

Name: Rhizopogon atroviolaceus
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: May-Sep.
Habitat: Douglas-fir, pines, hemlocks, true firs, spruce at moderate to high elevations
Spores: 6-8 x 3-3.6 µm, smooth, colorless but becoming purple in iodine solution
Features: Peridium white in youth, soon becoming brown from a surface layer of brown fibrils, often staining vinaceous where bruised. Gleba grayish green with small chambers; odor and taste mild.
Comments: This rare species is known only from Idaho and Oregon. It is one of a small group of Rhizopogon species with spores that turn strikingly purple in iodine solutions.

Name: Rhizopogon ellenae
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With pines, Douglas-fir, true firs, madrone
Spores: 6-9 x 2.5-4 µm, ellipsoid
Features: Peridium white in youth, soon becoming light brown from a surface layer of brown fibrils and staining vinaceous to light yellowish brown where bruised; usually with abundant rhizomorphs appressed over the surface. Gleba white in youth, soon becoming yellowish brown to dark brown. Odor and taste mild.
Comments: A fairly common species in the Pacific Coastal states plus Idaho and Utah, R. ellenae may be found from near sea level to high elevations in the mountains. It has no particular value for culinary purposes.

Name: Rhizopogon evadens
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With pines, Douglas-fir, hemlock, true fir in diverse habitats
Spores: 6-8 x 2-2.3 µm, ellipsoid, colorless
Features: Peridium white to dirty white, staining bright red when bruised or exposed. Gleba white in youth, by maturity dark olive. Odor somewhat metallic and disagreeable.
Comments: Widely distributed across North America, this species is particularly striking because of its bright red staining soon after it is unearthed. This reaction is particularly vivid in young specimens, as shown in the photograph.

Name: Rhizopogon hawkerae
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With Douglas-fir in a wide variety of habitats
Spores: 6.5-8 x 2.2-2.8 µm, ellipsoid
Features: Peridium smudgy white and staining red in youth, as shown in the photo, later brown with red tints and black bruises. Gleba white in youth, later dark olive; odor mild or slightly spicy, taste mild.
Comments: Among the earliest fruiters in autumn, this species is common over much of the range of Douglas-fir in western North America. It can get quite large; when mature it becomes firm and, when diced, adds some texture and a bit of flavor to scrambled eggs or omelettes.

Name: Rhizopogon occidentalis
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Sep-Mar.
Habitat: With 2-3 needled pines from coastal dunes to mountain forests
Spores: 5.5-7 x 2-3 µm, ellipsoid, colorless
Features: Peridium yellowish white to yellow, often with orange to red areas, with yellow to orange rhizomorphs appressed to form a network over the entire surface, sometimes reddening slightly where bruised or cut. Gleba grayish olive to olive.
Comments: Common in western North America, often emergent and fruiting in large numbers. Because it can be so abundant and easily found in places, it can be used in cooking in a variety of dishes despite its mild odor and taste.

Name: Rhizopogon ochraceorubens
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Aug-Nov.
Habitat: With 2-3 needled pines in mountain forests
Spores: 6-8 x 2-3 µm
Features: Peridium bright yellow in youth with yellow rhizomorphs appressed to form a network over the entire surface, the outer rhizomorphs and peridium soon darkening to red or reddish brown. Gleba at first white, by maturity olive to olive brown or brown; odor and taste mild.
Comments: Widely distributed in mountains of western North America but less common than R. occidentalis. It can become rather large (up to 4 inches broad) and often fruits in clusters that mound up the soil. It can be used in cooking much the same as R. occidentalis.

Name: Rhizopogon parksii
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Aug-Dec.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir
Spores: 4.5-6.5 x 2.3-3 µm, ellipsoid
Features: Peridium smudgy white in youth, by maturity gray to brown, in youth staining slightly pink where cut or bruised, later sometimes staining gray or violet. Gleba white in youth, at maturity gray to grayish olive, sometimes with vinaceous to purple-stained areas; odor and taste mild to slightly garlicky or of spicy sausage.
Comments: Widely distributed in the Douglas-fir forests of western North America, especially from the Cascade Mountains west to the Pacific shore. Its culinary qualities are marginal.

Name: Rhizopogon salebrosus
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With pines, Douglas-fir, true firs, hemlocks, spruces
Spores: 6-10 x 2.5-3.5 µm, oblong to fusoid
Features: Peridium initially white, soon becoming brownish from an overlay of brown fibrilles, thick, fibrous-felty. Gleba initially white, at maturity brown to olive brown; odor and taste mild.
Comments: One of a complex of species difficult to tell apart, R. salebrosus is widely distributed and common in western North America. Because of its generally small size and lack of interesting odor or taste, it is not often used as food by humans.

Name: Rhizopogon separabilis
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Aug-Dec.
Habitat: With 2-3 needled pines and possibly other conifers
Spores: 6.5-8 x 2.5-3 µm, subellipsoid to subfusoid
Features: Peridium white in youth, becoming light yellow to brownish yellow, often with reddish brown apots. Gleba yellowish brown to cinnamon brown.
Comments: This rare species is known only from mature conifer forests of the Oregon Cascade Mountains at relatively high elevations. Its culinary qualities are unknown.

Name: Rhizopogon subsalmonius
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Mar-Sep.
Habitat: With true firs at moderate to high elevations
Spores: 6-8 x 2-2.5 µm, colorless
Features: Peridium pale peach pink to light salmon colored in youth, later yellowish salmon to brownish salmon, with salmon-colored rhizomorphs appressed here and there on the peridium, thin and easily rubbed off. Gleba white in youth, becoming olive colored and finally dark yellowish brown; taste and odor mild.
Comments: The attractive peach to salmon color of the peridium delights the eye of the finder. It has been found in montane to tree-line habitats, particular with subalpine fir. Like other Rhizopogon species, it has only modest culinary virtues.

Name: Rhizopogon truncatus
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: Moderate elevations to subalpine forests, with conifers
Spores: 7-10 x 3.5-5 µm, truncate-ellipsoid, dark brown
Features: Peridium bright chrome yellow with yellow rhizomorphs, associated with mats of bright yellow mycorrhizae. Gleba dark brown; odor and taste mild.
Comments: The most brightly colored hypogeous fungus in North America, it occurs in the Appalachian and western mountains, is often first noticed in soil because of its bright yellow mycelium in which fruiting bodies are embedded. Its small size, rather infrequent occurrence and mild odor and taste do not lend it much value for cooking.

Name: Rhizopogon villosulus
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With Douglas-fir through most of its range
Spores: 6-8 x 2-2.5 µm, oblong, smooth, colorless
Features: Peridium dark brown and felty over an underlying whitish layer, not staining. Gleba white in youth, dark olive brown at maturity; odor at maturity of spicy, garlicky sausage, taste mild.
Comments: Found throughout most of the range of Douglas-fir in North America and introduced to Europe, Australia and New Zealand on Douglas-fir seedlings in plantations. Its aroma is interesting but dissipates during cooking.

Name: Rhizopogon vinicolor
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With Douglas-fir
Spores: 5.5-8 x 3-4.5 µm, truncate-ellipsoid
Features: Peridium initially white with tinges of yellow and staining pink to vinaceous when exposed or bruised, by maturity dark vinaceous brown and darkening where bruised. Gleba light yellow in youth, by maturity dark cinnamon brown to dark olive and rubbery. Odor slightly fruity, taste mild.
Comments: Found throughout most of the range of Douglas-fir in North America and introduced to Europe, Australia and New Zealand on Douglas-fir seedlings in plantations. It's generally small size, rubbery texture and mild flavor require more effort in the kitchen than the results justify.

Name: Rhizopogon vulgaris
Group: Basidiomycota, Rhizopogonaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With pines, Douglas-fir, true firs, and other conifers in young to mature stands from sea level to subalpine
Spores: 5.5-8 x 2-3 µm, subfusoid to oblong or ellipsoid
Features: Peridium in youth pale cream color and staining red where cut or bruised, at maturity dull yellow to yellowish brown. Gleba white in youth, by maturity light olive; base with a root-like cluster of rhizomorphs.
Comments: Probably the most widely distributed of all Rhizopogon spp., occurring around the Northern Hemisphere with diverse conifers; its basal, root-like cluster of rhizomorphs sets it apart from other, similarly colored species, but that cluster commonly breaks off when fruiting bodies are removed from the soil.

Name: Sarcosphaera coronaria
Group: Ascomycota, Pezizaceae
Season: Feb-Jul.
Habitat: Upper elevation to subalpine forests with pines and other conifers
Spores: 14-22 x 7-9 µm, elliptical
Features: A large, fragile hollow orb with an apical, stellate-rimmed opening into the cup; outer surface dirty white to gray, the cup interior white in youth, soon becoming violet to purple.
Comments: This species is not a true truffle, because it forcibly discharges its spores to the air. When it develops under a thick layer of fir needles, however, it often matures below ground without opening and mimics a truffle.

Name: Scleroderma cepa
Group: Basidiomycota, Sclerodermataceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: Common in yards and gardens, mixed forest
Spores: 7-12 µm, globose, dark brown, spiny
Features: Fruiting bodies round, up to 4 or more inches in diameter, with a sterile base that often is projected as a stem. Peridium thick and tough, smooth in youth but by maturity developing scales, dull yellow to brownish yellow, in cross-section white and slowly staining pink where cut. Gleba white and with filled chambers in youth, darkening and becoming powdery as the spores mature.
Comments: Scleroderma species are actually puffballs and not truffles, but they do begin their development below-ground and can be mistaken for truffles by novice collectors. Sclerodermas are poisonous and anyone who dines on them will be subjected to a world of gastric distress. Their toxicity seems to develop as they mature.

Name: Thaxterogaster pavelekii
Group: Basidiomycota, Cortinariaceae
Season: Mar-Jun, occasionally Nov.
Habitat: Spruce-hemlock forests in the coastal fog belt
Spores: 14-18 x 9-10 µm, ornamented with narrow lines and warts, brown
Features: Yellowish gray to brown, thickly slimy visid when wet, shiny when dry. Gleba dark cinnamon, chambered, with a columella that is greatly enlarged near the base and sometimes protrudes beyond the botton of the fruiting body.
Comments: This interesting species occurs only near the coasts of Oregon and Washington. Nothing has been recorded about its culinary value, but its extremely slimy surface and close relationship to the mushroom genus Cortinarius, many species of which are toxic, discourage its use for food. Named after NATS founding member and past president Henry Pavelek, Sr.

Name: Thaxterogaster pingue
Group: Basidiomycota, Cortinariaceae
Season: Jul-Oct.
Habitat: With true fir at moderate elevations to timberline in the mountains
Spores: 12-16.5 x 8-9.5 µm, ellipsoid, wrinkled/warty
Features: Peridium slimy-viscid when wet, tan to olive brown. Gleba of convoluted gills, with prominent vestigial stipe and columella.
Comments: Widely distributed in the mountains of western North America, T. pingue fruits during the summer, snow-free time. It can often be found when no other fungi are fruiting. The comments on the lack of culinary value of T. pavelekii apply here as well.

Trappea darkeri
Group: Basidiomycota, Phallaceae
Season: Apr-Nov.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, pines, true firs, hemlocks, spruces and oaks at moderate to high elevations.
Spores: 4-5 x 2-3 µm, ellipsoid to oblong, smooth, colorless
Features: Fruiting bodies subglobose to irregular, rubbery, with one or more rhizomorphs emerging from the base. Peridium white but staining yellow to orange or brown where bruised, in cross-section thin with an underlying zone of white, sterile chambers. Gleba with a translucent, dendroid columella, the fertile chambers olive to bright olive green or olive brown. Odor of stinkhorns or gasoline.
Comments: This unusual truffle, characterized especially by its zone of sterile chambers underlying the peridium, is widely distributed in western North America but not abundant in any one spot. Small mammals must be attracted to it, but its unpleasant odor and rubbery texture do not recommend it for table use. Named after NATS Scientific Advisor Dr. James Trappe.

Name: Truncocolumella citrina
Group: Basidiomycota, Boletaceae
Season: Aug-Dec.
Habitat: Douglas-fir, rarely lodgepole pine, at low to moderate elevations
Spores: 6-9 x 3.5-5 µm, smooth, ellipsoid
Features: Peridium lemon-yellow. Gleba brown with prominent columella, often quite large and emerging to the soil surface.
Comments: The bright color and often large size of this truffle make it easy to spot and identify. It is frequently found pushing through the soil surface on trailsides and roadcuts. It probably occurs over the range of Douglas-fir, although it has yet to be reported from Mexico. It can be used in cooking but is bland.

Name: Tuber californicum
Group: Ascomycota, Tuberaceae
Season: Oct-Jun.
Habitat: With various conifers, oaks and hazels at low to moderate elevations
Spores: 40-50 µm broad, globose, with a honeycomb reticulum
Features: Globose to somewhat irregular, white to tan with whitish furrows, smooth to finely pubescent; gleba brown, marbled with white veins; aroma mild to slightly garlicky.
Comments: This petite species occurs west of the Cascade and Sierra Mountains from Washington to southern California. Its combination of globose spores and a fine pubescence of long, tapered hyphal tips separate it from other species. It tends to be solitary which, along with its small size, makes it hard to get enough to even have a taste.

Name: Tuber gardneri
Group: Ascomycota, Tuberaceae
Season: May-Sep.
Habitat: With Douglas-fir, pines, hemlocks and oaks, often in warm, dry habitats
Spores: 28-58 x 24-30 µm, varying from subglobose to long-ellipsoid, with a honeycomb reticulum
Features: Small, globose to somewhat irregular, yellowish brown, minutely warty; odor mild or slightly garlicky; asci thick-walled. Gleba at maturity brown to purplish brown marbled with very narrow, white veins.
Comments: Another small species, T. gardneri is unusual in its fruiting season being confined to spring and summer. The combination of the minutely warty peridium and thick-walled asci are unique for North America, although a similar species, T. murinum, occurs in Europe. Found from Washington South into Mexico, it is too small and infrequent to have value for table use.

Name: Tuber gibbosum
Group: Ascomycota, Tuberaceae
Season: Jan-Jun.
Habitat: With young to early-mature Douglas-fir.
Spores: 25-45 x 17-33 µm, ellipsoid, with a honey-comb ornamentation.
Features: Peridium olive to brownish yellow with some brown mottling, smooth but with furrows that are minutely pubesent with short, emergent hyphae having peculiar, bead-like wall thickenings. Gleba firm, white when immature, brown with white marbling when mature; odor "truffly," a complex of garlic, spices, cheese, and undefinable other essences.
Comments: This truffle, the "spring Oregon white truffle," is a popular edible and is commercially harvested. It occurs from northern California to southern British Columbia west of the Cascade Range from sea level to about 2,000 ft elevation. As is true of all truffles, the special aroma develops only at maturity, so young specimens have no particular appeal.

Name: Tuber lyonii
Group: Ascomycota, Tuberaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With pecans and oaks
Spores: 30-37 x 22-24 µm, ellipsoid, with tall spines connected by low lines
Features: Peridium smooth with roughened furrows, reddish-orangish brown. Gleba white when immature, brown with white marbling when mature; odor "truffly."
Comments: It occurs from northeastern Mexico to Ontario from the Great Plains to the East Coast. The most popular native truffle in the eastern U.S., it is commercially harvested.

Name: Tuber oregonense
Group: Ascomycota, Tuberaceae
Season: Oct-Jan.
Habitat: With young to early-mature Douglas-fir
Spores: 25-52 x 17-40 µm, ellipsoid or tapered to a blunt tip at both ends, with a honey-comb ornamentation
Features: Peridium white in youth, soon becoming yellow to olive mottled with brown to orange-brown or reddish brown botches, at full maturity reddish brown overall. Gleba firm, white when immature, brown with white marbling when mature; odor "truffly," a complex of garlic, spices, cheese, and undefinable other essences.
Comments: This popular "fall Oregon white truffle" is closely related to Tuber gibbosum. It differs in the the anatomy of the peridium, and spore size and shape. The two species share the same distribution, but their seasons barely overlap. Of the two, T. oregonense seems to have a more intense fragrance and is particularly sought by commercial harvesters. Unfortunately, the raking method of harvest unearths many immature ones that have not developed the special fragrance.

Name: Tuber querciola
Group: Ascomycota, Tuberaceae
Season: Year-round
Habitat: With oaks, especially in warm, dry sites.
Spores: 20-45 x 15-35 µm, ellipsoid, spiny, light brown
Features: Peridium dark reddish-brown to dark brownish red, finely warty. Gleba white in youth, at maturity light yellowish brown marbled with both white and dark brown, narrow veins. Odor at maturity of fresh, green beans.
Comments: West Coast of North America south into Mexico, in the past literature referred to the related but different Tuber rufum. It’s mild flavor adds little of interest to a meal. Some people experience digestive discomfort from eating the European T. rufum; no record of such a reaction exists for T. quercicola, but reasonable caution should be used when first trying it.
http://www.natruffling.org/blurbs.htm


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Invisiblecactu
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9505070 - 12/28/08 12:42 AM (15 years, 2 months ago)

http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/Mycology/Animal_Interactions/animalsFungi/mycophagy.shtml

i wonder why  australia have more Sequestrate Form
maybe since is the only place with more  marsupial and they sure are fungivorous , maybe , just dreaming.

Ocurrence of ectomycorrhizal, hypogeous fungi in plantations of exotic tree species in central Argentina
http://www.mycologia.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/5/752

http://www.mycologia.org/cgi/content/full/94/2/327
http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/research_and_conservation/scientificcollections_staff/teresa_lebel
Papers
Lebel, T. and Castellano, M.A. (1999). Australian truffle-like fungi. IX. History and current trends in the study of the taxonomy of sequestrate macrofungi from Australia and New Zealand. Australian Systematic Botany 12: 803-817.

Miller, S.L. and Lebel, T. (1999). Hypogeous fungi from the southeastern United States. II. The genus Zelleromyces. Mycotaxon 72: 15-25.

Lebel, T. and Trappe, J. M. (2000). Type studies of sequestrate Russulales. Part I. Generic type species. Mycologia 92 (6): 1188-1205.

Lebel, T. (2001). Native Truffles in Australia. The Victorian Naturalist 118: 38-43.
Bougher, N. and Lebel, T. 2001. Sequestrate (truffle-like) fungi of Australia and New Zealand. Australian Systematic Botany 14: 439-484.

Lebel, T. (2002). Sequestrate Russulales of New Zealand. Gymnomyces and Macowanites. New Zealand Journal of Botany 40: 489-509.

Lebel, T. (2002). A new species of Zelleromyces (Russulales) from Australia. Australasian Mycologist 21 (1): 4-8.

Bougher, N. L. and Lebel, T. (2002). Australasian sequestrate (truffle-like) fungi. XII. Amarrendia gen. nov.: an astipitate, sequestrate relative of Torrendia and Amanita (Amanitaceae) from Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 15: 513-525.

Lebel, T. and Castellano, M. A. (2002). Type studies of sequestrate Russulales. Part II. Species related to Russula from Australia and New Zealand. Mycologia 94: 327-354.

Smith, J.E., Molina, R., Huso, M.M.P., Luoma, D.L., McKay, D., Castellano, M.A., Lebel, T., and Valachovic, Y. (2002). Species richness, abundance, and composition of hypogeous and epigeous ectomycorrhizal fungal sporocarps in young, rotation-age, and old-growth stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the Cascade Range of Oregon, USA. Canadian Journal of Botany 80: 186-204.

Trappe, J.M, Lebel, T., and Castellano, M.A. (2002). Nomenclatural revisions in the sequestrate russuloid genera. Mycotaxon. 81: 195-214.

Lebel, T. (2003). Australian truffle-like fungi. XIII. Cystangium. Australian Systematic Botany 16(3): 371-400.

Lebel, T. (2003). Australian truffle-like fungi. XIV. Gymnomyces. Australian Systematic Botany 16(3): 401-426.

Lebel, T., Thompson, D.K., & Udovicic, F. (2004). Descriptions and affinities of a sequestrate fungus, Barcheria willisiana T.Lebel gen. et sp. nov. (Agaricales). Mycological Research 108: 206-213.

Jumpponen, A., Claridge, A.W.C., Trappe, J.M., Lebel, T., Claridge, DL. (2004). Ecological relationships among hypogeous fungi and trees: inferences from association analysis integrated with habitat modelling. Mycologia 96: 510-525.

The Australian continent is characterised by a harsh climate and highly weathered, nutrient-poor soils. Trees and shrubs in these stressful environmental conditions typically form ectomycorrhizae with a variety of fungi, many of which form hypogeous (underground) fruit-bodies. The total number of hypogeous fungi Australia-wide is unknown, although recent systematic studies in the far south-eastern corner of the country suggest that they may number well over a thousand. Similar surveys elswhere are urgently required to clarify the situation. The precise ecological role of many hypogeous fungi remains to be determined, although most presumably facilitate nutrient and water uptake on behalf of their mycorrhizal partners. Others may also protect their plant host from root pathogens. One key function of hypogeous fungi is the role their fruit-bodies play as a food resource for a large range of terrestrial mammals. For a few animals, hypogeous fungi form the single most important dietary item year-round, whereas for others they may only be of seasonal or supplementary value. The extent to which fungi form part of the diet of any mammal species is reflected in the various levels of adaptation toward acquiring, then processing and digesting these cryptic and nutritionally challenging foodstuffs.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/j80484847urv8444/


http://www.utas.edu.au/docs/plant_science/tasfungi/PDF%20files/Mt_Wellington_sequestrates.pdf


from rod , every body loves rod:http://eticomm.net/~ret/amanita/key.dir/hemibkey.pdf
Amarrendia - The species of this genus are hypogeous ("subterranean and truffle like").  At present, the genus is known only from Australia.  The genus is largely based on shared elements of gross morphology.  Molecular work has excluded several morphologically similar hypogeous entities originally assigned to Amarrendia that did not belong in the Amanitaceae.  Detailed morphological workups on Amarrendia material have not been completed to our knowledge.  Evidence suggests that the truffle-like taxa in Amanita have descended from an ancestor or ancestors assignable to Amanita sect. Caesareae [ key (over 540 Kb PDF) ].  The editors of these pages presently favor recombining all amanitoid taxa of Amarrendia in Amanita.

The type species of Amarrendia is A. oleosa Bougher & Lebel (2002).
Torrendia - The species of this genus are (1) secotioid; (2) expand from within a membranous, universal veil; (3) have longitudinally acrophysalidic stipe tissue (as in Amanita); (4) have inamyloid spores (with one possible exception); and (5) have clamps on the bases of their basidia (with the same possible exception). Taxa of the Mediterranean region and Australia have been assigned to Torrendia.  At least some of the taxa of this genus (including the type species) appear to have had ancestors in common with species of Amanita section Caesareae [ key (over 540 Kb PDF) ].  As in the case of Amarrendia (above), the status of the genus Torrendia  is under on-going investigation.  At present, the editors of these pages favor recombination of all taxa of Torrendia in Amanita.

The type species of Torrendia is T. pulchella Bres. (1902).  See Malençon (1955), Bas (1975), Miller and Horak (1992), Tulloss (2005b). The image of T. pulchella is a line drawing by C. Bas that is used with his permission.

[NB: Images and well-documented dried collections are sought by both editors.]
http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/mainaman.html


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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9505968 - 12/28/08 06:02 AM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Quote:

cactu said:
Evolution of gilled mushrooms and puffballs inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences
Evolution of Gasteromycetes.

http://www.pnas.org/content/94/22/12002.full




This is a much better article than the first one I read.  It actually details the methods used to arrive at these tentative conclusions.  For me, you left out the best part.  I'll add them with a few comments.

Taxon Sampling.  To construct a comprehensive phylogenetic data set, representatives of all the major lineages of homobasidiomycetes were sampled. Exemplars were selected from 10 families of Agaricales (6), 18 families of Aphyllophorales (2), and seven families of Gasteromycetes (7); these included 20 species of gilled mushrooms, 52 nongilled Hymenomycetes, and nine Gasteromycetes, including five puffballs (a list of strains is available from D.S.H.). In modern homobasidiomycete taxonomy, there are many small families that have been segregated relatively recently on the basis of unique characters, as well as a handful of larger, older families that are united not by synapomorphies but rather by the lack of distinguishing characters that could be used to subdivide them (2, 6, 7). Single exemplars were chosen from the smaller, putatively monophyletic families (e.g., Schizophyllaceae, Fistulinaceae, and Ganodermataceae) whereas multiple species were sampled from the larger, presumably artificial families (Clavariaceae, Corticiaceae, Polyporaceae, and Tricholomataceae). Based on previous phylogenetic analyses at more inclusive levels than the present study (8), the heterobasidiomycete “jelly fungi,” Auricularia, Dacrymyces, and Tremella, were included for rooting purposes.

Molecular Techniques and Phylogenetic Analyses.  Laboratory methods for culturing, DNA isolation, PCR amplification, and DNA sequencing have been described (9, 10). Sequences of nuclear (nuc) and mitochondrial (mt) small subunit (ssu) rDNA (nuc-ssu-rDNA and mt-ssu-rDNA) were obtained using published primer sequences (10, 11). Seventy-five nuc-ssu-rDNA and 44 mt-ssu-rDNA sequences have been deposited in GenBank (accession nos. AF026567–AF026687). This study also used 40 mt-ssu-rDNA sequences from our previous work (ref. 9; GenBank accessions U27023–U27080, U59099) and one mt-ssu-rDNA and nine nuc-ssu-rDNA sequences downloaded from GenBank: Agaricus bisporus (L36658), Auricularia auricula-judae (L22254), Boletus satanas (mt-ssu-rDNA M91009 and nuc-ssu-rDNA M94337), Coprinus cinereus (M92991), Dacrymyces chrysospermus (L22257), Lepiota procera (L36659), Pleurotus ostreatus (U23544), Schizophyllum commune (X54865), and Tremella foliacea (L22262).

Parsimony analyses of manually aligned sequences were performed using paup* 4.0d53 (test version provided by D. L. Swofford, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.). All transformations were unordered and equally weighted. Three hundred replicate heuristic searches were performed, using random taxon addition sequences and TBR branch swapping. Bootstrap analyses used 100 replicates, with simple taxon addition sequence, with TBR branch swapping, and with MULPARS off. Complete nuc-ssu-rDNA coding sequences were ≈1750-bp long and were alignable over their entire length, except for three regions of 55, 95, and 83 bp in Cantharellus tubaeformis, which are highly divergent and were excluded from the analyses. Partial mt-ssu-rDNA sequences ranged from 550 to over 1000 bp, which was due to length variation in three hypervariable regions (9, 12, 13) that alternate with three conserved regions of 131, 237, and 116 bp (aligned). The conserved regions were aligned for all ingroup taxa except Sparassis spathulata, which is highly divergent and was omitted from mt-rDNA alignments. The second conserved region of mt-ssu-rDNA, termed “block 5” (9), showed greater sequence divergence than the other regions; outgroup sequences could not be aligned to the ingroup in this region. Analyses were performed that included or excluded the entire block 5 region, as well as the mt-rDNA sequence from Sparassis. Although there were some topological differences, basic conclusions regarding evolution of gilled mushrooms and puffballs were not sensitive to the inclusion or exclusion of these data (results not shown). The alignment can be obtained from TreeBASE (ref. 14) or from D.S.H.

Topologically constrained analyses were used to evaluate the hypothesis that all gilled mushrooms form a single lineage. Constraint trees were constructed using macclade (15), which forced monophyly of gilled mushrooms but which specified no other tree structure. Parsimony analyses were performed under this constraint, using the same settings as in the baseline analyses (above). The resulting trees were evaluated by the Kishino–Hasegawa maximum likelihood test, using the program dnaml of the phylip software package (16). macclade also was used to infer historical patterns of morphological transformations. Fruiting body morphology was coded as an unordered character with three-states (gilled mushroom/nongilled Hymenomycete/Gasteromycete) that were optimized onto the trees using parsimony, with all transformations equally weighted.


Notice two things in the section above.

1)  The adoption of adjectives qualifying the statements, e.g. putatively and presumably.  This means that the authors know, and we know, that trees are subject to pruning.  These are tentative conclusions and will have to remain so given the number of unknowable variables in fungal history.

2)  They deliberated excluded data (I presume to bolster their case).  See this: Although there were some topological differences, basic conclusions regarding evolution of gilled mushrooms and puffballs were not sensitive to the inclusion or exclusion of these data (results not shown).   I have a major problem with that.

Other things stand out but I needn't point to all of them to make my one, singular point.  I found this to be particularly enlightening.

The oldest unambiguous homobasidiomycete fossils are 90–94 million-year-old gilled mushrooms that are strikingly similar to certain extant euagarics (20, 21).

20.  Hibbett D S, Donoghue M J, Grimaldi D A (1995) Nature (London) 377:487.
21.  Hibbett D S, Donoghue M J, Grimaldi D A (1997) Am J Bot 84:981–991.

Well, no shit.  In my opinion that throws the whole shooting works out the window.  I don't have to explain why.

This, also, was particularly intriguing:

Parsimony-based optimizations of morphological character states suggest that gilled mushrooms evolved at least six times although the precise location on the tree of some changes is equivocal (Fig. 1).

The precise location on the tree is equivocal?  Gee, do ya think?  :rolleyes:  The "parsimony-based optimizations of morphological characters" yields suggestions, not certainty.  Moreover, they find mushrooms that look nearly the same today as they did nearly 100,000,000 years ago.

The point remains: taxonomic classification should be based on what we know with certainty, not some pie-in-the-sky speculation, which is all phylogenetic trees or cladograms will ever be.

I know playing with the new toys is fun.  Hell, I remember when I got my first microscope (1968 for those who are wondering).  And, as a biologist and a mycologist, I am more than familiar with range of morphological characteristics.  Yet, they remain the unequivocal means by which we can arrive at taxonomic classification.  Period, End of Story.  As I've said repeatedly, taxonomic classification should be based on what we know, not what we think we know.

The bottom line is this.  Evolution is speculation, always was, always will be.  Why?  Because it is a historical reconstruction of past events.  That is history, not science.  :noway:

And that, mi amigo, is incontrovertible and inarguable.


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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: Mr. Mushrooms]
    #9506932 - 12/28/08 11:51 AM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Quote:

Mr. Mushrooms said:

The bottom line is this.  Evolution is speculation, always was, always will be.  Why?  Because it is a historical reconstruction of past events.  That is history, not science.  :noway:

And that, mi amigo, is incontrovertible and inarguable.




science  is base on many speculation  for say theory`s , i don't have a problem with that in the end the truth  will alway comes out, for me is  of immense intensity to try to understand the past of mushrooms , the evolution for say a word even i don't like to much the term evolution as a Darwinian  point , since organism don't evolve as random mutation as is point out in evolution , for me evolution or new changes are a conjunction or symbiosis, normally new species arise, with interaction with bacteria or other symbiont , and in mushrooms this particular process as my point of view is happening real fast .,

you really gave your opinion . i will like to hear what other have to say . i am fascinated with the idea that maybe in future we are going to see a truffle like psilocybe ,
all this information have  help me to understand a bit more about mushrooms .


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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9506988 - 12/28/08 12:00 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

:wink:like to read more  , dont be afraid the brain will not explode i hope...
The Evolution of a Great-Big Headache:

"Understanding" Mushroom Taxonomy and Phylogeny
by Michael Kuo

or maybe give a second read with a secotoid  felling
http://www.mushroomexpert.com/kuo_05.html
My point is: What the hell is going on? Are we at the point where DNA research will re-align our groups of mushrooms in ways that make them seem to the naked eye (or even to the microscope) like alliances of strange bedfellows? What are we learning about the mushrooms themselves--how they evolved over time, how they function in ecosystems? What use can we make of our new knowledge?

We have not even come close to documenting all the mushroom species on the planet. Molecular biology represents at least the second (possibly the third or fourth) time the entire project has had to be reconsidered, and many backward steps taken along with the forward steps in order to account for previous "mistakes." The first time was caused by the microscope . . .


we are not alone  ......... and we are all humand , conected also , the truth i want the truth .


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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9507000 - 12/28/08 12:02 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Mi Amigo :hug:

I know there are parts of science that are theoretical, and necessarily so, e.g. physics.  But that is a bit different from creating taxon status for a living organism when the entity is right there in your hand.  To me it is the height of hubris to remake taxonomy on the basis of speculation.  Fuck history, and I say that in the strongest of terms.  But yes, like you, I find all of this fasicinating and I am glad you created the thread.

I gave my opinion in the hopes others would speak out.  However, the length of your posts might have scared some people off.  There are only a handful of us that are as interested in this as you and I are.  If no one else posts, others have read it.  Perhaps we will have to be content with that.

I just want to thank you for your enthusiasm, diligence and passion for mushrooms.

All the best,
Hongos


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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9507038 - 12/28/08 12:10 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Quote:

cactu said:
the truth i want the truth .




I read the link a while ago.

You want the Truth?  Are you sure you can handle it?



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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: Mr. Mushrooms]
    #9507108 - 12/28/08 12:29 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Quote:

Mr. Mushrooms said:
Mi Amigo :hug:

I know there are parts of science that are theoretical, and necessarily so, e.g. physics.  But that is a bit different from creating taxon status for a living organism when the entity is right there in your hand.  To me it is the height of hubris to remake taxonomy on the basis of speculation.  Fuck history, and I say that in the strongest of terms.  But yes, like you, I find all of this fasicinating and I am glad you created the thread.

I gave my opinion in the hopes others would speak out.  However, the length of your posts might have scared some people off.  There are only a handful of us that are as interested in this as you and I are.  If no one else posts, others have read it.  Perhaps we will have to be content with that.

I just want to thank you for your enthusiasm, diligence and passion for mushrooms.

All the best,
Hongos




we will make this a dialogue , if it take to much will take  via pm . haha
but  any way i like it, since i stand  relax in my ground learning in the process , science , also learn from error.

i know that in maybe 50 year  we are going to see back  taxomy and lught iam just  more advanced i guees , or more in the future. i can see it  some how, Mushroom Taxonomy by Morphology
for example if you look at Carl Linnaeus sensibly decided in 1735 that "objects are distinguished and known by classifying them methodically and giving them appropriate names"  well how  thing have change then we began to use his method refine it then the microscope open  more  thing (Mushroom Taxonomy by Microscopy), well let quuote  kuo :; It was not long, however, before microscopic examination began to reveal differences that were not paralleled by differences in macrofeatures--and all hell broke loose..
here  for you my friend to get into science . haha  for me is not a exact one .....
kuo is my favorite  let quote again and again.:
As the 20th Century progressed, mycologists like C. H. Kauffman (1869-1931), Alexander H. Smith (1904-1986), and Rolf Singer (1906-1994), to mention only a few of the North American "giants," used better and better microscopes, and began to reclassify mushrooms on the basis of what they were seeing under the lens. Smith's 1947 monograph of Mycena in North America, for example, separated 232 species into subgenera and sections, in a key based extensively on microscopic features. Introducing this mammoth treatment, Smith wrote:

      At the present time generic concepts in the gill fungi may be said to be in a state of transition. The genera of the Friesian classification have been critically evaluated in the light of information obtained on microscopic characters and as a result of the discovery of many interesting species from other parts of the world, and it has become evident that considerable regrouping throughout the agarics is desirable.

The Golden Age of the microscope in North American mushroom taxonomy (and we are definitely still within it) is epitomized by the works of Smith and L. R. Hesler. Aside from using powerful microscopes to analyze and measure spores, Hesler & Smith studied the cellular ("hyphal" in the fungus world) structures of mushrooms, and focused (oops) on differences they discovered. In 1963 they arranged the waxy caps into subgenera and sections based entirely on the arrangement of cells in the gills ("intricately interwoven," "somewhat interwoven," "divergent," and so on). Interestingly, however, the subsequent arrangement of subsections, "series," and species for the 244 mushrooms is accomplished primarily on the basis of old-fashioned, Friesian macrofeatures. Hesler & Smith's 1979 treatment of Lactarius is also an interesting combination of macroscopic and microscopic emphases; see their Key to Subgenus Lactifluus, Section Lactifluus for a brief example.

Hesler & Smith collected a stunning number of North American mushrooms, and authored many species. But each time Alexander Smith sat down to arrange a genus of mushrooms, with or without a collaborator, he was obliged to re-study the collections of earlier mycologists, such as Peck, under the microscope. In short, all the data compiled before the emphasis on microscopic features must be re-examined. This project--re-evaluating mushroom taxonomy in light of the microscope--is far from over, despite the prolific contributions of Smith and many others, which is why I said we are still in the microscope's Golden Age.

Mushroom Taxonomy by Molecular Biology

Simultaneously, however, new taxonomic tools have not only knocked on the door but have been making themselves at home for a number of years. Analysis of the chemicals present in mushrooms has led to questions that Friesian and microscope-based taxonomy may be unable to answer. Additionally, laboratory experiments performed on mushrooms in culture (like, petri-dish culture; not social culture) are producing interesting results, some of which may challenge our taxonomical assumptions. But the biggest and loudest stranger suddenly getting comfortable on the couch is the molecular biology person--the one who coolly bandies phrases like "goat-antirabbit immunoglobulin antiserum." As I hope I made clear above, this stuff gives me a headache. Whereas I can get out my microscope and see the spores of Boletellus pseudochrysenteroides for myself, I can't exactly pull out my DNA sequencing stuff, or my RFLP equipment (don't ask) and fire it up. All I can do is ask molecular biologists to tell me what they have learned about mushrooms by torturing rabbits.

I can approximate an answer on when moleculary biology stuck its foot in the door, however. A quick trip through the citations in the extensive entry for "Molecular Biology" in Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi (Kirk et al., 2001) makes it clear that DNA studies on fungi got into full swing in the early 1990's (327). To double-check, and to stick to the bolete theme of this essay, I searched "boletus" in the CABI Bioscience Bibliography of Systematic Mycology, which returned the titles, authors, and dates of some 600 publications related to Boletus, stretching back about 20 years. The earliest bolete publication I can find that is clearly (to me, anyway) based on DNA science is from 1990.

So for about 10 or 15 years molecular studies have been performed on mushrooms, perhaps rather haphazardly; which mushrooms get studied is more or less a matter of chance. I have been told that molecular research is probably more reliable when it comes to separating large groups of mushrooms--"clades," in molecular parlance--and less relevant (though not irrelevant) when it comes to separating species. This may be due in part to the fact that mushrooms simply have "less DNA" than humans, for example, giving scientists fewer data to work with. Regardless, however, the technology is still in its infancy, and this limitation may disappear with advances in equipment, software, and the like.

It goes without saying that the project of using molecular studies to review the mushroom taxonomy already accomplished on the bases of macrofeatures and microscopes has barely begun. One step forward; two steps back.:grin:


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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9507359 - 12/28/08 01:44 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

is interest to read the hole article  . but i will put also the last part :http://www.mushroomexpert.com/kuo_05.html
Headache Postponed

If you are still reading, I thank you for your patience!

My headache, caused by the revelation from molecular biology that one bolete was more closely related to a puffball than to most other boletes, is gone--gone because, since its onset, I have spent days and days with my nose buried in mycological texts, and had the choice of letting it get worse, or getting over it. So, just as the dense mass inside Scleroderma citrinum turns to spore-dust and winds up being shot into the air when raindrops fall on the puffball, my headache disintegrated and blew away. It is not worth having a headache over these issues when so little is known and so much remains to be seen.

Over the past fifteen years or so, insights into mushroom phylogeny from molecular biology have snowballed. Now mycology journals are full of papers investigating the big questions. With a little research, in fact, it became evident to me that Binder & Bresinsky's research was not even the first to suggest the relationship between Scleroderma and Gyroporus. Molecular biology has quite simply stood Friesian taxonomy on its head. As Hibbett and Donoghue (1998) put it:

      The central goal of taxonomic mycology is to create classifications that communicate understanding of fungal phylogeny. . . The current taxonomic system, which is based on the hierarchy of Linnaean ranks and the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, is unsatisfactory for this purpose.
      (347)

A few months after Hibbett & Donoghue's assessment that Linnaean taxonomy might be doomed in the fungal world, for example, Johnson & Vilgalys (1998) published a paper in the same journal after submitting a number of gilled mushrooms to DNA research. They found, among other things, that Coprinus comatus, the Shaggy Mane, may belong in what used to be called the Lepiotaceae, along with the Meadow Mushroom, Agaricus campestris. With this, we're talking white-spored, brown-spored, and black-spored mushrooms in the same groups! They also found that some of the satellite genera created over the years out of Lepiota--like Chlorophyllum and Leucoagaricus--may not be supported by molecular evidence (splitters will be happy to know that Leucocoprinus, at least, was tentatively supported).

This is a bad time to demand answers from mushroom mycology, or to insist on a stable picture. But it may well have been this insistence on a stable system--a Linnaean, or Friesian system--that led mushroom science to the uncomfortable position of sitting in the 21st Century with few answers, a crumbling taxonomy, and a lot of work to do. Amateur mushroomers, too, have a lot of work to do, if they're interested. No, we cannot extract DNA or conduct mating research in petri dishes. But we can definitely help provide missing data to the specialists, who need information on the distribution of species, and as much ecological data as can be gathered. Our collections are important, especially when illustrated, described, and preserved. Those of us who have been collecting mushrooms more or less the way Peck did, a hundred years ago, should consider changing our habits so that we gather ecological data as well--not just the mushrooms.^




.exactly  in many year , we are gonna relate and see how things are connected, and no isolated,many changes , and so for say evolution happened with interaction of organism  with the environment and with then self  or others. we have to think in mushrooms as plastid creatures. capable of transform, adapt, in vary rapid ways, it is fascinated.  for me . the future of mycology  and other natural science, since aim a biologist, i can see how in  the future we are gonna start to correlate all the information from all types of investigation , sometimes not related to mushrooms directly  , but  tied  by destiny , as for example studies in tree and animals, genetic studies,etc, human interactions, , ecological studies, i try to absorb as much as i can information , i get surprise how much i can relate to mushrooms , i will say all , is related to mushrooms to me, and if i get to mushrooms to the deep end i will get a glimpse of all .hard to say  but true, for me mushrooms are a tool to understand nature and other creatures, and other creatures and nature are tool to understand mushrooms, and by the way human are part of nature  they just  don`t realize yet .

so as a biologist i became to understand  my science is not correct have many draw back, is to rigid, to square, sometimes a obstacle to go further, but i consider the scientific route the first step in the understanding of nature and all things, is dedication, and practice , error , and accert, that build the character of the scientific, is to prove thing and not only read then , what satisfied the  hungry for compression for understanding , for the truth , seek the truth adn the truth will make you free, i consider science , was dominated in the past era  by people trying to hidden the information it is as deliberating  science, can  go beyond  because we have a code, we have rules,  we have...;) so science is changing slowly but  scientific have seem the boring protocol have to be change , for a more open mind , this are the scientific of today and  future, the ones that ties the rope , understand the limitations of the tools they have given and with this poor light in the dark they like to seek the way out, seriously
science is good , but is not all , observation  is the key , in nature, in the microscope in the DNA, in the even other part of physic we are like afraid to say  metaphysic ,since we can be call as crazy , but the era of inquisition is over guys, we are free to speculate and dream, and no one will fight you for that..hope so .


the only scientific that have move that wall of knowledge  further away , where dreamer , they where so confuse with they current world, that  don`t believe in it, what today is and idea is a reality tomorrow , there is  history to prove it  if you like history ,

so  by saying with all the given fact that many secotoid form arise in different genera and that we can see now the correlation is absolutely true,  this open a new field of investigation in many field of mycology , yeah the era where the lumper-splinter will end, at last, but it will take year to be there  until then i will try to live in my own world .

this is a big piece of the puzzle that is with in more puzzle , that why is a head ache to all of us, free your mind, filled with all information, look all sides of the coin, throw it in the air and see it disappear?,¿? it is a coin that will decide your future go on and look for yourself...............


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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9508615 - 12/28/08 06:13 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

here is an article from January -February 1984 that apear in Official Publication of the Mycological Society of America
THE SECOTIOID SYNDROME
Department of Biological Sciences, Sun Francisco State University,
Sun Francisco, California 94132
the last part is inspiring too.
In conclusion I would like to give an explanation of why I believe the progression went from an epigeous to a hypogeous habitat and why the sequence went from a typical agaric type of basidiocarp with an exposed hymenium and a ballistosporic type of spore to an enclosed, gastroid type of basidiocarp with statismospores. At the outset it must be kept in mind that I am speaking only of
areas with climates similar to the western mountain ranges of the United States where there are extended periods of drought.
1. Initially there was a natural selective process favoring those basidiocarps which offered some protection against the loss of moisture from the hymenium.
Perhaps this protection arose from the permanent establishment of arrested stages in sporocarp formation. Such protection would, therefore, be derived from the failure of the pileus to expand and expose the hymenium. Furthermore, constrictions
placed upon the hymenophore due to the failure of the pileus to expand would result in the formation of pockets or spaces in the hymenophore which would be effective in maintaining a higher humidity and enhancing spore production.
2. The forcible discharge of the spore could have been lost during any of the various arrested stages; however, it seems to me that this character must have disappeared early in the sequence. If the hymenophore is no longer exposed there is no selective advantage in the forcible discharge of basidiospores. Perhaps when
the hymenophore became enclosed the basidia for some reason, unknown at this point, might have lost this dispersal mechanism. At least at the present time there are no Homobasidiomycetes known to me which have retained the forcible discharge
of spores when the hymenium is enclosed.
3. With the disappearance of forcibly discharged basidiospores it is apparent that the stipe offered no selective advantage for the survival of the species. Thus perhaps by attrition, if in no other way, it slowly disappeared. Again, it should
be pointed out that truly stipitate hypogeous species are very rare. A continuation of the stipe in the form of a columella within the gleba has persisted much longer and many of the hypogeous species possess such a structure.
4. The disappearance of the stipe removed any means by which the sporocarp could be elevated from the soil, thus it became hypogeous.
5. The absence of a differentiated stipe allowed the peridium (epicutis) to enclose the hymenophore and hymenium thereby resulting in the formation of a gastroid type of basidiocarp.
6. The restrictions placed upon the development and elaboration of the hymenophore by the enclosure by the peridium eventually resulted in the formation of a finely lacunose type of gleba.
7. In the case of boletes or Discomycetes the process was essentially the same with allowances being made for differences in hymenium, hymenophore and carpophore.
8. The principal disseminating agent for the spores of secotioid fungi is, obviously, no longer air currents but dissemination is now dependent largely upon animal dispersal. The two most important agents are small rodents (12) and insects. Water perhaps plays a minor role, particularly run-off and percolating waters which may carry spores for some distance.
The major basis for the belief that the evolutionary process proceeded in the manner elaborated upon above is the forcible discharge of the spores. It seems to be the most logical and simplest assumption that this character was acquired by an early ancestral type which in turn transmitted it to the various groups of present-day Homobasidiomycetes. Otherwise it would have been necessary for this character to have arisen de novo in each of the different evolutionary series. It seems unrealistic to believe that this same character would have been independently acquired in so many different groups of fungi and in so many different series of organisms. Finally I should like to say that I fully realize that the  contributions of this paper will not resolve the controversy regarding the origin and phylogeny of the secotioid fungi. I sincerely hope, on the other hand, that I might have been able to stimulate your interest and curiosity regarding these fungi and to make you more aware of their presence and significance and to alert you to their value as potential research organisms in studies on the evolution of the fleshy fungi.

http://www.mykoweb.com/systematics/literature/The%20Secotioid%20Syndrome.pdf


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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9508641 - 12/28/08 06:17 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Derivation of a polymorphic lineage of Gasteromycetes from boletoid ancestors

Manfred Binder 1
Andreas Bresinsky

    Institut für Botanik, Universität Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany

The phylogeny of selected gasteromycetes and hymenomycetes was inferred from partial nuclear large subunit rDNA (nuc-lsu, 28S) sequences, delimited by primers LR0R and LR5. Taxon sampling with emphasis on relationships within the Boletales further included some gasteroid groups, which obviously have evolved convergent fruiting body morphology, and therefore remained controversial in taxonomy. This study confirms the close relationship of Geastrales, Gauteriales and Phallales and the presumable derivation of Nidulariales and Tulostomatales within the euagarics clade, as widely accepted. In addition, four Hymenogaster species investigated were found to be in the euagarics clade and a relationship to the Cortinariaceae was indicated. The gasteroid fungus Zelleromyces stephensii is an example for maintaining morphological linkage by a lactiferous hyphal system to the genus Lactarius in the Russulales, and this relationship was affirmed in the sequence analysis. Several previously suggested relationships of gasteromycetes and Boletales were reproducible by analyzing nuc-lsu sequences. As a new result, Astraeus hygrometricus, the barometer earth star, is an additional representative of the Boletales. Together with Boletinellus, Phlebopus, Pisolithus, Calostoma, Gyroporus, Scleroderma, and Veligaster, Astraeus forms an unusual group comprising pileate-stipitate hymenomycetes and polymorphic gasteromycetes. This group is a major lineage within the Boletales and we propose the new suborder Sclerodermatineae, including the six families Boletinellaceae fam. nov. (Boletinellus and Phlebopus), Gyroporaceae (Singer) fam. nov. (Gyroporus), Pisolithaceae (Pisolithus), Astraeaceae (Astraeus), Calostomataceae (Calostoma), and the typus subordinis Sclerodermataceae (Scleroderma and Veligaster). Morphological and ecological characters, and pigment synthesis support the delimitation of the Sclerodermatineae, and indicate the radiation of different lineages in the Boletales originating from fungi with primitive tubular hymenophores. We regard such boletes with gyroid-boletinoid hymenophores, like Boletinellus, Gyrodon, Gyroporus, Paragyrodon and Phlebopus as key taxa in the evolution of Paxillineae, Sclerodermatineae and Boletineae.

Key words: Astraeus, Boletinellus, Calostoma, Gyroporus, Pisolithus, Phlebopus Scleroderma, nuc-lsu rDNA, taxonomy

from here http://www.mycologia.org/cgi/content/abstract/94/1/85


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cuando una rafaga del pensamiento nos pasa  al lado se puede sentir  que valio  la pena  haber vivido, y cuando ese pensamiento se  convierte en sueño no paramos de soñar hasta realizarlo

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InvisibleMr. Mushrooms
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Registered: 05/25/08
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9508724 - 12/28/08 06:37 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Thank you, cactu.  I love bedtime stories.



I keep reading to see if anyone else responds.


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Invisiblecactu
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: Mr. Mushrooms]
    #9508740 - 12/28/08 06:40 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

:rofl:


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cuando una rafaga del pensamiento nos pasa  al lado se puede sentir  que valio  la pena  haber vivido, y cuando ese pensamiento se  convierte en sueño no paramos de soñar hasta realizarlo

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InvisibleShockValue
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Registered: 11/18/08
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: Mr. Mushrooms]
    #9509047 - 12/28/08 07:42 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Quote:

Mr. Mushrooms said:
However, the length of your posts might have scared some people off.




:leaving:


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  • When we built temples to view the stars, we knew about all 2000 of them.

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InvisibleinskiM
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9559138 - 01/06/09 05:49 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

Excellent post with great information cactu, you are welcome to use any of my images that you think are relevant to this most interesting subject and I will be happy to contribute my findings:cool:
Here is a link to a recent post!
Weraroa novaezelandiae.
inski..


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Invisiblecactu
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: inski]
    #9559349 - 01/06/09 06:19 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

thank you my friend , i was expecting  your call , since you are one of ther best representative we have there , and of course your part of the world is devoid of secotoid so we all have to work together. since each can add information to this what i call puzzle .
i will soon use your picture to try to  xplaing a bit more .


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cuando una rafaga del pensamiento nos pasa  al lado se puede sentir  que valio  la pena  haber vivido, y cuando ese pensamiento se  convierte en sueño no paramos de soñar hasta realizarlo

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InvisibleinskiM
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: cactu]
    #9559433 - 01/06/09 06:33 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

You are welcome,
I have about four months to wait before I can make more finds but I hope to fill some gaps in the "puzzle" and make many more images:cool:
The information you have compiled has changed some of my views on the evolution of these organisms and I hope we can learn more!
inski..


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Invisiblecactu
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Re: EVOLUTION IN ACTION: FROM MUSHROOMS TO TRUFFLES? [Re: inski]
    #9560064 - 01/06/09 08:01 PM (15 years, 2 months ago)

thank you  inski it really takes time to digest all this information and the one out there , evolution is a theme  you know i love .

because  we are use to see the world static ,  we are teach that way, instead we should be teach at school that we live in a world is constantly changing alive, full of many mechanism to evolve, to adapt , that it behave as a single organism , that we are all connected,  once  biology  begging with that and is getting there in many areas, is more easy to understand things, just with the help of mycologist taxonomist , molecular biology, genetic, mushrooms hunter, plant biology, ecology, mathematic, physics, and more, science, is that we are going to make more sense i like the idea of all time people like Darwin that instead  of choose a career they call then self materialist , in a broader sense it apply to many Of the different lines of science today , but sometimes this is what lack  our scientific today , some of then are taking the highest route, to take maybe the humanity to knew horizons.


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cuando una rafaga del pensamiento nos pasa  al lado se puede sentir  que valio  la pena  haber vivido, y cuando ese pensamiento se  convierte en sueño no paramos de soñar hasta realizarlo

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