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Bluefoot Bandit Registered: 04/15/10 Posts: 3,693 Loc: Around some corn |
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WHOA!
You look different on the album. -------------------- Of dreams that wave before the half-shut eye, And of gay castles in the clouds that pass, For ever flushing round a summer sky. -Castle of Indolence
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Stranger Registered: 05/11/18 Posts: 10 Last seen: 5 years, 2 months |
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Hmmm...interesting.
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Registered: 11/29/07 Posts: 18,606 |
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Post deleted by Mad_Larkin
Reason for deletion: .
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Registered: 04/20/11 Posts: 6,702 |
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It is what it is, but it ain't what you think.
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Registered: 07/11/99 Posts: 8,399 |
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Abstract
We review the salient evidence consistent with or predicted by the Hoyle-Wickramasinghe (H-W) thesis of Cometary (Cosmic) Biology. Much of this physical and biological evidence is multifactorial. One particular focus are the recent studies which date the emergence of the complex retroviruses of vertebrate lines at or just before the Cambrian Explosion of ∼500 Ma. Such viruses are known to be plausibly associated with major evolutionary genomic processes. We believe this coincidence is not fortuitous but is consistent with a key prediction of H-W theory whereby major extinction-diversification evolutionary boundaries coincide with virus-bearing cometary-bolide bombardment events. A second focus is the remarkable evolution of intelligent complexity (Cephalopods) culminating in the emergence of the Octopus. A third focus concerns the micro-organism fossil evidence contained within meteorites as well as the detection in the upper atmosphere of apparent incoming life-bearing particles from space. In our view the totality of the multifactorial data and critical analyses assembled by Fred Hoyle, Chandra Wickramasinghe and their many colleagues since the 1960s leads to a very plausible conclusion – life may have been seeded here on Earth by life-bearing comets as soon as conditions on Earth allowed it to flourish (about or just before 4.1 Billion years ago); and living organisms such as space-resistant and space-hardy bacteria, viruses, more complex eukaryotic cells, fertilised ova and seeds have been continuously delivered ever since to Earth so being one important driver of further terrestrial evolution which has resulted in considerable genetic diversity and which has led to the emergence of mankind. Keywords Cosmic biologyCambrian ExplosionRetrovirusesPanspermiaH " The historian of science may be tempted to claim that when paradigms change, the world itself changes with them." The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Thomas S Kuhn, 1962, 2nd ed. 1970) When presented with the uncanny survival attributes of Tardigrades, a friend exclaimed: " How on earth did they evolve?" (Anon. 2017) " The idea that in the whole universe life is unique to the Earth is essentially pre-Copernican. Experience has now repeatedly taught us that this type of thinking is very likely wrong. Why should our own infinitesimal niche in the universe be unique? Just as no one country has been the centre of the Earth, so the Earth is not the centre of the universe." Life Cloud (Fred Hoyle and N Chandra Wickramasinghe, 1978 J.M. Dent & Sons, London, p.132). 1. Purpose of article This review article is intended to represent, in the main, the collective knowledge and wisdom of over 30 scientists and scholars across many disciplines of the Physical and Biological sciences. We review much of the key experimental and observational data gathered over the past 60 years consistent with or predicted by the Hoyle-Wickramasinghe (H-W) thesis of Cometary (Cosmic) Biology. We are acutely aware that mainstream thinking on the origin and further evolution of life on Earth is anchored firmly in the “Terrestrial” paradigm. Our aim here is to facilitate further discussion in the biophysical, biomedical and evolutionary science communities to the quite different H-W “Cosmic” origins viewpoint which better handles, in our opinion, a wider range of physical, astrophysical, biological and biophysical facts often quite inexplicable, if not contradictory, under the dominant Terrestrial neo-Darwinian paradigm. Further, if some readers are hoping to read a disquisition based on Population Genetics-type analyses, as one reviewer has put it, " … analyses of evolutionary rates, examples of appearance of new genes with no homology to old ones, etc” they will mostly be disappointed; although some genetic features from recent data in the Octopus and other Cephalopods provide challenging examples to conventional evolutionary thinking. But that is not the main thrust of this review. The general, and admittedly unusual, scientific writing style is to ensure clear plain-English communications across many scientific disciplines. However of iconic specific interest, we discuss the recent phylogenetic data which date the emergence of the complex retroviruses of vertebrate lines at or just before the Cambrian Explosion of ∼500 Ma (the widely agreed epochal event in the evolutionary history of multicellular life on Earth). These types of reverse transcribing and genome integrating viruses are speculated to be plausibly associated with major evolutionary genomic processes. We believe this coincidence with the Cambrian Explosion may not be fortuitous but consistent with a key prediction of H-W theory whereby major extinction-diversification evolutionary boundaries coincide with cometary-bolide bombardment events delivering hypothesized viruses, microorganism, and more complex eukaryotic systems to Earth during the past 4.5 Billion years of Earth history. Not all of such incoming living systems would necessarily take hold, and substantial terrestrial based evolutionary processes (whatever the actual molecular genetic mechanisms) are also expected to be on going. In our considered view the totality of the multifactorial data and critical analyses assembled by Fred Hoyle, Chandra Wickramasinghe and their many colleagues leads to the bare minimum yet plausible scientific conclusion – that life was seeded here on Earth by life-bearing comets as soon as conditions on Earth allowed it to flourish (at or just before 4.1 Billion years ago); and living organisms such as space-resistant and space-hardy bacteria, viruses, more complex eukaryotic cells and organisms (e.g. Tardigrades), perhaps even fertilised ova and plant seeds, may have been continuously delivered ever since to Earth helping to drive further the progress of terrestrial biological evolution. This process, since the time of Lord Kelvin (1871) and Svante Arrhenius (1908) has the scientific name “Panspermia". Perhaps the most important astronomical data relevant to the theory of cosmic life to emerge in the past decade are the detections of habitable exoplanets – planets outside of our solar system. The total estimated tally of such Earth-like planets in our Milky Way galaxy alone now stands at 100 billion, and with 100 billion or so galaxies in the observable universe the grand total stands at 1022. Because exchanges of possibly fecund material between neighbouring habitats is more than likely, panspermia and the theory of cosmic life could be argued to become inevitable facts. The paradigm shift to this critical viewpoint, whilst underway, is by no means complete - yet we believe the historical moment has now arrived for a comprehensive and considered cross-disciplinary review of much of the relevant evidence, which this paper endeavours to represent. There are many and far reaching consequences of this new scientific awareness which we believe would be the privilege of future generations to explore. 2. Introductory remarks The Aristotlean paradigm of the spontaneous generation of life – the idea that the simplest life-forms emerged spontaneously on Earth (fireflies from mixtures of warm earth and morning dew) - has survived in one form or other for over 2000 years. It has withstood contradictory evidence on several occasions during this time. Pasteur's 1862 experiments on the fermentation of wine and the souring of milk led him to enunciate the dictum “Omne vivum ex vivo” or “All life comes from life”. The implication of the Pasteur experiment was that every generation of every microbe, plant or animal was preceded by a generation of the same organism. This view was endorsed enthusiastically by others particularly by physicists, prominent amongst whom John Tyndall, who on 21 January 1870 lectured at the Royal Institution in London on the implications for panspermia. It is interesting and noteworthy that the newly established magazine Nature objected to this lecture in its Editorial columns with some passion. Behind the objection was the realisation that were Pasteur's dictum to be strictly true then the origin of life would need to be external to the Earth. The continuing antagonism to the panspermic implications of Pasteur's dictum led the way to the emergence of the dominant biological paradigm - abiogenesis in a primordial soup. The latter idea was developed at a time when the earliest living cells were considered to be exceedingly simple structures that could subsequently evolve in a Darwinian way. These ideas should of course have been critically examined and rejected after the discovery of the exceedingly complex molecular structures involved in proteins and in DNA. But this did not happen. Modern ideas of abiogenesis in hydrothermal vents or elsewhere on the primitive Earth have developed into sophisticated conjectures with little or no evidential support. Even if we concede that the dominant neo-Darwinian paradigm of natural selection can explain aspects of the evolutionary history of life once life gets started, independent abiogenesis on the cosmologically diminutive scale of oceans, lakes or hydrothermal vents remains a hypothesis with no empirical support and is moreover unnecessary and redundant. With astronomical data now pointing to the existence of hundreds of billions of habitable planets in our galaxy alone (Abe et al., 2013; Kopparapu, 2013) such an hypothesis seeking an independent origin of life on any single planet seems to be no longer hardly necessary. The recent report indicating evidence of microbial life in Canadian rocks that formed 4.1–4.23 billion years ago (Dodd et al., 2017), if accepted, makes it more difficult in our view to envisage the option of abiogenesis taking place anywhere on the Earth. The claim that these rocks may have been associated with hydrothermal vents still raises the question of how life could have originated in situ during the early Hadean epoch that was riddled with frequent and violent collisions by asteroids and comets. Rather we think it more reasonable to suggest that the particular evidence of microbial life in the Canadian rocks was delivered by cometary bolides, only to be instantly destroyed or carbonised on impact. The conditions that would most likely to have prevailed near the impact-riddled Earth's surface 4.1–4.23 billion years ago were too hot even for simple organic molecules to survive let alone evolve into living complexity. This leaves panspermia as the most plausible valid option for the origin of terrestrial life; the first microbes were most likely delivered to the planet along with impacting comets and meteorites. This study, together with that of Bell and associates (2015) dating zircons in the Jack Hills of Western Australia to a similar time point, constitute the most recent discoveries that lead naturally into the data-based ideas that we discuss at length in this review. From the turn of the 20th century the resistance to panspermia had become ever more deeply entrenched in our scientific culture. Attempts by Hoyle and Wickramasinghe (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1979, 1981, 1986, 1993; Wickramasinghe, 2015a,b) to re-examine and re-instate panspermia in the light of new evidence from astronomy and biology were often met with hostility (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1986; Wickramasinghe, 2015a). A similar fate often befell attempts to re-instate certain crucial aspects of Lamarckism - the pre-Darwinian notion that the genes in our genome can be enriched in a 'directional' fashion through the inheritance of adaptive, environmentally-driven, acquired characteristics (Steele, 1979; Steele et al., 1998; Jablonka and Lamb, 1995, 2005; Lindley, 2010). This latter inheritance mechanism can be more precisely described as soma-to-germline feedback penetration of a semi-permeable (not absolute) Weisman's Barrier, a concept fashioned in the 19th Century at about the time of Darwin's death. There is now considerable evidence (Steele et al., 1998; Lindley, 2010; Steele and Lloyd, 2015; Steele, 2016a) consistent with the original 'somatic selection hypothesis' (proposed by one of us (EJS) in the late 1970s) which is hypothesized to operate via the agency of endogenous retroviral gene vectors and reverse transcriptase (Steele, 1979). Indeed there is much contemporary discussion, observations and critical analysis consistent with this position led by Corrado Spadafora, Yongsheng Liu, Denis Noble, John Mattick and others, that developments such as Lamarckian Inheritance processes (both direct DNA modifications and indirect, viz. epigenetic, transmissions) in evolutionary biology and adjacent fields now necessitate a complete revision of the standard neo-Darwinian theory of evolution or “New Synthesis " that emerged from the 1930s and 1940s (https://royalsociety.org/scienc We certainly do not want this paper to read, as one reviewer has put it … “ somewhat like a last-ditch and exasperated attempt to convince the main stream of the scientific community that in following neo-Darwinism they have gone seriously astray, because life has been carried to this planet from elsewhere in the universe on comets/meteorites and does not result from abiogenesis on Earth.” We actually consider that certain mechanistic aspects of neo-Darwinian and Population Genetic thinking is invaluable in biomedical research and clinical medicine (development of the “big data” algorithms that allow “personalised” navigation around the genetic features of thousands of human genomes by, for example, the Broad Institute in Boston and the Welcome Trust Sanger Institute in Cambridge). However these basic Darwinian based-concepts need to be circumscribed, in our opinion, and be placed in a Cosmic rather than a solely Terrestrial setting. In our view then both Panspermia and Lamarckian issues therefore contribute to our wider understanding as they go to the very heart of how life originated on Earth and how it subsequently evolved and diversified to the higher levels of sophisticated complexity that we witness today. In our view “Natural Selection” in its essence (survival of fittest) still plays a crucial role in a changing environment but it is now in a Cosmic, rather than a pure Terrestrial, setting; and it occurs in concert with both non-Darwinian and non-Mendelian inheritance mechanisms. Yet we recognize that the whole topic of 'evolutionary mechanisms' is, like political beliefs, both fraught and is a heated area of social and cultural discourse - certainly in all those areas lying outside of normal scientific investigation. Yet the simple fact that cannot be denied is that the terrestrial biosphere is an infinitesimal part of the far, far bigger system which is the astronomer's cosmos and the two systems are inextricably connected. This then is a trigger warning: Accurate scientific terminology can be unsettling because of their history, yet sometimes unavoidable - the terms Panspermia and Lamarckian Inheritance despite their emotive implications and prejudicial overtones will be used where deemed appropriate in this paper. Our additional epistemological argument for reviving these admittedly controversial issues here is this: Wrong theories are simply not fecund. Correct theories however always lead in logical ways to successive confirmatory instances and predict the discovery of novel phenomena in the real world - that is, they do not self-refute themselves by severe experimental and observational tests beyond their immediate explanatory domain. It is therefore in this spirit that we also discuss in the present paper, the exciting new virological evidence recently published in Nature Communications by Aiewsakun and Katzourakis (2017) which confirms an important prediction of the Hoyle-Wickramasinghe (H-W) theory of Cosmic Biology for the causes of the greatest epochal evolutionary event on Earth - the Cambrian Explosion of multicellular life a half billion years ago. However, before we move into that detail, we set the scene for a better understanding of the Aiewsakun-Katzourakis discovery by discussing the salient experimental and observational data behind the H-W concept of an all pervasive Cosmic Biology impacting continuously on Earth and other general evolutionary issues and about virus particles and their general properties. 3. Cosmic theory of life In the mid-1970's the idea of prebiotic molecules existing in interstellar space or in comets was initially not part of mainstream of scientific opinion. The original proposal by one of us (NCW) for organic polymers in interstellar space in 1974 (Wickramasinghe, 1974) was followed by a long series of articles in collaboration with Fred Hoyle confronting head-on the reigning scientific paradigm of an origin of life on the Earth – the so-called Haldane-Oparin primordial soup theory (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1978a, 1978b). After discussing a variety of possible interstellar and circumstellar settings for the beginnings of biochemistry (prebiotic evolution), Hoyle and Wickramasinghe (1978b) turned to the ensemble of the estimated 1011 comets in our solar system alone as the favoured setting for the origin of life on Earth (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1985, 1986). The anticipated radioactively heated interiors of these icy bodies containing liquid water domains (see below) replete with interstellar organics were argued to be enormously more favorable for an origin of life than anything that can be accomplished on the Earth. 4. Condition of liquid water The existence of liquid water is a prerequisite not only for the origin of life but for active microbiology as well. This requirement has come to the fore and been much publicised with the recent conclusion of NASA's Cassini mission. When Fred Hoyle and one of us (NCW) first proposed and developed the theory of cometary panspermia (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1979, 1981,1985) there was no direct evidence for liquid water anywhere outside the Earth. The inference of the presence of liquid water in comets and giant icy bodies of the solar system came from theoretical studies alone. Hoyle and Wickramasinghe (1985) argued that a largely icy body comprised of a normal solar system fraction of uranium and thorium would, through radioactive heating, maintain warm interior oceans of liquid water thus providing microbial habitats for billions of years. Hoyle and Wickramasinghe (1985) wrote: “There would evidently be no difficulty for a body of lunar size R > 1000km, maintaining a liquid condition in its interior, and some comets may have been able to do so over at least the first 500 million years history of the Solar System. Excess energy output would simply lead to a thinner surface shell, while a reduction of output would thicken the shell, in effect with the shell thickness adjusting itself to the reactor output. This solves the problem for the existence of chemoautotrophic biological systems under anaerobic conditions.” More detailed studies of the same processes were carried out later by Wickramasinghe et al. (1996) and J.T. Wickramasinghe et al. (2009). It was long afterwards that direct evidence of liquid water in comets as well as other icy solar system bodies came to be firmly established through space exploration. The Jovian moon Europa, the Saturnian moon Enceladus and the dwarf planet Ceres all have evidence of liquid water, maintained either through tidal energy dissipation or radioactive heating. 5. Earliest terrestrial life Three decades ago the earliest evidence for microbial life in the geological record was thought to be in the form of cyanobacteria-like fossils dating back to 3.5 Billion Years (Ga) ago. From the time of formation of a stable crust on the Earth at 4.3 Ga following an episode of violent impacts with comets (the Hadean Epoch to which we have already referred) there seemed to be available a 800 million years timespan during which the canonical Haldane-Oparin primordial soup may have developed. Very recent discoveries, however, have shown that this time interval has been effectively closed (Dodd et al., 2017). Further, detrital zircons ≥4.1 Ga, discovered in rocks belonging to a geological outcrop in the Jack Hills region of Western Australia, have been found to contain micron-sized graphite spheres with an isotopic signature of biogenic carbon (Bell et al., 2015). The 12C-enrichment found within these inclusions may thus be taken as plausible unequivocal evidence for the existence of microbial life on Earth before 4.1 Ga, during the epoch of comet and asteroid impacts. These data are consistent with the dating of first life on Earth for the just discussed data for early signs of cell-based life (>4.1Ga) in Canada's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates (Dodd et al., 2017). The requirement now, on the basis of orthodox abiogenic thinking, is that an essentially instantaneous transformation of non-living organic matter to bacterial life occurs, an assumption we consider strains credibility of Earth-bound abiogenesis beyond the limit. A far more plausible possibility is that fully-developed microorganisms and maybe other eukaryotic organisms arrived at the Earth via impacting comets, and these later became carbonized and trapped within condensing mineral grain conglomerates. It is now becoming amply clear that Earth-like planets and other life-friendly planetary bodies exist in their hundreds of billions and exchanges of material between them (meteorites, cometary bolides) must routinely occur (Wickramasinghe et al., 2012; Kopparapu, 2013; Appendix A). One is thus forced in our view to conclude that the entire galaxy (and perhaps our local group of galaxies) constitutes a single connected biosphere. 6. Origin of life A facile criticism that is often leveled against the cosmic life theory is that it does not solve the problem of life's origin, but merely transfers it elsewhere (Appendix A). Whilst this may be true in the strictest sense, the importance of knowing whether or not life originated, or could have done so de novo, in the most minuscule of cosmic environments (here on Earth) as against the cosmos as a whole is a scientific question of paramount importance and one that needs to be addressed. The cosmic theory of life that extends the interactive biosphere of all life to encompass a cosmological volume connecting all habitable niches in the Universe has profound ramifications within evolutionary biology itself. Some of these ramifications will emerge in other sections of this article, and see the further extended discussion of view-points on the origin of life per se in the Universe in the supplementary information, Appendix A. The transformation of an ensemble of appropriately chosen biological monomers (e.g. amino acids, nucleotides) into a primitive living cell capable of further evolution appears to require overcoming an information hurdle of superastronomical proportions (Appendix A), an event that could not have happened within the time frame of the Earth except, we believe, as a miracle (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1981, 1982, 2000). All laboratory experiments attempting to simulate such an event have so far led to dismal failure (Deamer, 2011; Walker and Wickramasinghe, 2015). It would thus seem reasonable to go to the biggest available “venue” in relation to space and time. A cosmological origin of life thus appears plausible and overwhelmingly likely to us, and various ideas that have a bearing on this question have been explored in great depth by Hoyle and Wickramasinghe (1979, 1981,1982, 2000) and Gibson et al. (2011). 7. Organic molecules and biological dust in space and in comets Detections of interstellar organic molecules of ever-increasing complexity have continued with the deployment of newer and better instruments and telescopes. Infrared, microwave, and radio observations are used to detect the presence of such molecules, and the current list of positive detections is likely to be circumscribed only by limitations of available techniques. Historically, the first mid-infrared spectrum of the Galactic Centre infrared source GC-IRS7 was shown to be very similar to the spectrum that was predicted earlier for a partially degraded (freeze dried) bacterium (Fig. 1) and this striking exact correlation between laboratory data and astrophysical observation was reasonably interpreted by Hoyle and Wickramasinghe as tenable evidence for life being a cosmic phenomenon (Hoyle et al., 1982, 1984). Evidence accumulated in the subsequent 3 decades has only served to strengthen this claim; a mixture of semi-bituminous coals and desiccated E-coli bacteria gave a similar match to the IR spectral features of GC-IRS7 over 3.2–3.8 μm as in Fig. 2 (Coulson and Wickramasinghe, 2000), suggesting that the process of bacterial degradation leads to the formation of interstellar coal. The standard rebuttal of this biological interpretation of spectroscopic data was to assert that an appropriately weighted ensemble of organic functional groups (produced abiotically) could be conceived in the biochemistry/biophysical laboratory that exactly matched such a biological spectrum. But the conditions needed to produce such a finely tuned mixture infallibly and ubiquitously were never actually explored or published by those motivated by such a viewpoint. (While a skeptical scientific attitude in such matters is essential we nevertheless re-emphasize that deducing chemical and physical properties of extraterrestrial objects and entities in the wider Solar System and Universe from correlative spectroscopic data in Earth-based laboratories and telescopes, has been the bread and butter of Astrophysical deductive science at least since Galileo and the Renaissance, e.g. as illustrated in the extant data in Figs. 1–3). Fig. 1 Download high-res image (247KB)Download full-size image Fig. 1. A composite of absorption and scattering properties of interstellar dust from the infrared to the far ultraviolet. Lowest curve is the predicted behaviour around 2175A of an ensemble of biological aromatic molecules compared with average properties of interstellar dust; the middle curve is the total extinction (absorption + scattering) behaviour of an ensemble of bacterial and viral dust compared with astronomical data points for interstellar dust; the upper curve is the measured extinction of desiccated bacteria. The points are astronomical observations of D.T. Wickramasinghe and D.A. Allen for the Galactic Centre source GC-IRS7 (1986). Drawn from published data by NCW. For more details see refs. (Wickramasinghe, 2015a, 2015b; Hoyle et al., 1982, 1984). Fig. 2 Download high-res image (217KB)Download full-size image Fig. 2. Emission by dust coma of Comet Halley on March 31, 1986 (points) compared with normalized fluxes for desiccated E-coli at an emission temperature of 320K. The solid curve is for unirradiated bacteria; the dashed curve is for X-ray irradiated bacteria (Allen and Wickramasinghe, 1981; Wickramasinghe and Allen, 1986). Left hand graph drawn from published data by NCW. Right hand image Giotto image of the cometary nucleus is on the right frame (Courtesy of the European Space Agency). Fig. 3 Download high-res image (452KB)Download full-size image Fig. 3. Jets of organic molecules, and molecular oxygen were found emerging from comet 67P/C-G (Courtesy of the European Space Agency). P/C ratio of gas analysed by the Rosetta orbiter revealed values of 1% that are consistent with degradation of bacteria (Capaccionne et al., 2015; Bieler et al., 2015; Altwegg et al., 2016). The evidence based arguments in favour of complex organics in comets were first put forward by Vanýsek and Wickramasinghe (1975). In 1986 the presence of organic dust in comets was confirmed by D.T. Wickramasinghe and Allen (1986), Fig. 2. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe thereafter (1986) pointed out that the infrared spectrum of Comet Halley suggestively indicated bacteria-like material in comets (Fig. 1), and also that comets appear to have a tar-like surface layer resulting from the degradation of biological material near its closest orbital point near the Sun, or perihelion. These data posed a serious challenge to Whipple's ‘dirty snowball’ comet model that was the reigning paradigm at the time. Space probes to Halley's comet in 1986 established its dust as high in carbonaceous compounds and its surface as very dark, quite unlike ice or snow. Later exploration of several comets, using a variety of space technologies, has strengthened the case for microbial life in comets (and in carbonaceous chondrite residues) but this is not readily admitted in conservative astronomical and meteoritic circles. Solar system short-period comets as well as long period comets whose source is the Oort Cloud and adjacent star systems are hypothesized to be the carriers and amplifiers of microbial life on a galactic or even cosmological scale (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1981, 1993). On this model it follows that interstellar dust should include a fraction of material that represents the detritus of biology. Since 1980 the existence in interstellar clouds of complex organic molecules such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, is beyond dispute (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1991, 2000). In addition to infrared data the ubiquitous 2175A absorption band in interstellar dust, although still “unidentified”, appears fully consistent with either biochemical chromophores (break-up of microbiology) or radiation-processed microbial entities. Another astronomical dataset pointing to ubiquitous microbiology are the diffuse interstellar absorption bands in the visual spectra of stars that have defied identification for over 8 decades, but which match the properties of porphyrins (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1991). It should also be noted that during the past 15 years the correspondences shown in Fig. 1 have been greatly extended to include the most distant galaxies (Wickramasinghe, 2015a). This would mean that a fortuitous match of biochemical spectra with astronomy must (according to critics and skeptics) stretch out to the very edge of the observable universe (redshift z = 4). The Rosetta Mission's Philae lander has recently provided us novel information about the comet 67P/C-G (Capaccionne et al., 2015; Wallis and Wickramasinghe, 2015; Wickramasinghe et al., 2015). Jets of H2O vapour and organics issuing from cracks and holes in the black crust (Fig. 3) are plausibly consistent with biological activity occurring within sub-surface pools (Wickramasinghe et al., 1996, 2009). The most recent report of O2 along with evidence for the occurrence of water and organics provides, in our view, a further compelling argument for ongoing biological activity (Bieler et al., 2015). Such a mixture of gases cannot be produced under thermodynamic conditions, since organics are readily destroyed in an oxidizing environment. The freezing of an initial mixture of compounds, including O2, not in thermochemical equilibrium, has been proposed, but there is no evidence to support such a claim. On the other hand the O2/H2O/organics outflow from the comet can be elegantly explained on the basis of subsurface microbiology. Photosynthetic microorganisms operating at the low light levels near the surface at perihelion could produce O2 along with organics. Many species of fermenting bacteria can also produce ethanol from sugars, so the recent discovery that Comet Lovejoy emits ethyl alcohol amounting to 500 bottles of wine per second may well be an indication that such a microbial process is operating (Biver et al., 2015). 8. Evidence for extant life on mars The scientific history of the issue of life on Mars is a story in itself, yet very significant in the cosmic biology context (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe, 1997; Wickramasinghe, 2015a). The early positive results of Gilbert Levin and Patricia Straat (1976) on extant microbial life detected on the surface of Mars by the 1976 Viking Labelled Release (LR) experiment have never been properly refuted (Levin and Straat, 2016), and Levin and colleagues have fully considered and dealt with all the various comments and criticisms (Levin, 2007, 2013, 2015; Bianciardi et al., 2012). Indeed the prospects for a better quality of scientific search for life missions on Mars with Gilbert Levin's involvement have improved considerably (University of Buckingham Press Release, July 23, 2016). The pioneering 1976 studies are supported by the new results of Ruff and Farmer (2016) from the Mars Spirit rover which show silica deposits on Mars containing features resembling hot spring biosignatures at El Taion in Chile. Ruff and Farmer conclude that “Although fully abiotic processes are not ruled out for the Martian silica structures, they satisfy an a priori definition of potential biosignatures.” It is therefore appropriate that the extensive dataset relating to the possibility of extant Martian life is fully appraised, and Levin and Straat's discoveries of 4 decades ago placed in context and they be accorded full credit for their discoveries. 9. Microbial material in the stratosphere and meteorites Data from cometary studies continue to be backed up by recoveries of microbial material in the stratosphere (under conditions where upwelling terrestrial contamination can be plausibly ruled out). Biological entities ranging from viable but non-culturable microbes to unexplained aggregates of microscopic biological entities continue to be recovered from heights in the range 30–41km in the stratosphere (Wainwright et al., 2014, 2015a, 2015b). The entities are composed of carbon and nitrogen and exhibit bilateral symmetry and organism-like morphologies. The evidence has been interpreted to show it is consistent with the plausible conclusion that these micro-organism-like entities are incoming to Earth from space, possibly transported by small comets (Frank and Sigwarth, 2001). The likely survival of biological materials descending through the Earth's atmosphere has been demonstrated in micron-sized meteoroids (Coulson and Wickramasinghe, 2003) and in icy comet meteors with radii of ∼1 m (Coulson et al., 2014). Early evidence of fossilized micro-organisms internal to carbonaceous meteorites has become well-established, with skepticism over terrestrial contamination now firmly countered (Pflug and Heinz, 1997; Hoover, 2005, 2011; Miyake et al., 2010; Wickramasinghe, 2015a). The most recent discovery of microbial fossils in meteorites that fell in Sri Lanka in 2012, and the unequivocal determination (based on Oxygen isotope data) that the rocks are not of Earth origin provides further strong evidence of panspermia (Wallis et al., 2013). Another related phenomenon concerns the red rain events recorded throughout history (McCafferty, 2008) but most recently in Kerala, India (Louis and Kumar 2006) and Sri Lanka in 2012. All the available evidence point to red pigmented organisms that are unlikely to have a terrestrial origin. In spite of rigorous precautions and controls that have been undertaken for the investigations we have discussed in this section, the general trend has been to dismiss such discoveries that contradict the reigning paradigm as contaminants. 10. Principles of virology - viruses as dense information-rich control systems Before embarking on a discussion of the new evidence on retroviral evolution (Aiewsakun and Katzourakis, 2017) it is important we recap the basic processes of the biology of viruses and their modus operandi as genetic vectors within and between cells. All DNA and RNA viruses infecting bacterial or eukaryotic cells are tightly ordered and dense information systems. All known cellular systems carry integrated virus genetic information, or fragments thereof, or are potentially targets of virus attack and infection. These axioms do not contradict any principle in any modern textbook. Indeed, since Felix d’Herrelle and Frederick Twort in 1915-17 discovered the “filterable” agents that could infect and kill bacterial cells, we now have an almost complete understanding of the essential principles of virology. To continue a short list summary we know that: • The experience over decades from experimental transformation and transfection systems leads to the conclusion that any given virus particle or nucleic acid agent (viroid) can in principle potentially enter any cell. • Replication within the cell is another matter, as the incoming information-rich molecular system must both gel, mesh and integrate with the host cell's complex biochemical and genetic circuits (Fig. 4). • But florid replication can lead to explosive production of virions and death of the host cell (cf. cytopathic viruses). Such events occur because both the cell's immediate Innate Immunity mechanism and then later the organism's more delayed Adaptive Immune Response fail to stop the virus infection. The explosive production of virions is rarer than a more measured replication and extracellular virion export, accommodating both viral and host cell growth (or even integration of the viral DNA/RNA into the host cell genome, as latent virus). These then are the essential three main outcomes of the first stage of the host-parasite relationship (Fig. 4). • Usually the explosive cytopathic growth type of infection (leading to the rapid death of the host) is rare because most terrestrially circulating (and evolving) viruses have established ‘host-parasite’ rules of engagement (in both their Innate and Adaptive defence arms). • So the explosive cytopathic infections, typical of unexpected fast emerging epidemics and pandemics are likely, on a first pass, to have causes unrelated to the normal constraints of the host-parasite relationship (below). • Thus, the host-range of all plant, animal and bacterial viruses is defined not by entry of the virion into the cellular microenvironment, but by whether it can productively replicate or integrate and then express itself (such as a retrovirus). In practice this is usually manifest as an observable viral disease with characteristic non-life threatening first symptoms. • Viruses then are dense information-rich polynucleotide macromolecules of ≥ 3000 bp (SanJuan, 2010, 2012; Sanjuan and Domingo-Calap, 2016). They are in a sense, in susceptible host cells, condensed regulatory blueprints in tune with the essential transcriptional regulator genes and nodal biochemical pathways critical to the growth and viability of the cell. • We should then plausibly view viruses as among the most information-rich natural systems in the known Universe (Fig. 4). Their size dictates they are very small targets minimizing the probability of destruction by flash heating or ionizing radiation, Hoyle and Wickramasinghe (1979) e.g. Chapter 1. Their nanometer dimensions plausibly allow easy transport and dispersal by micrometer sized dust grains and other protective physical matrices of similar size. They are then nanoparticle-sized genetic vectors which contain all the essential information to take over and drive the physiology of any given target cell within which they mesh. Their replicative growth means they are produced, and exist, in huge numbers on cosmic scales; so that they (and to a lesser quantitative extent their cellular reservoirs) can suffer huge losses by inactivation while still leaving a residue of millions of surviving particles potentially still infective. A virus then is a type of compressed module in touch with the whole of the cell's very ability to grow and divide to produce progeny cells and thus to evolve. This check list is underpinned by the important experiments on RNA viruses by Sanjuan and his associates (Sanjuan, 2010, 2012; SanJuan et al., 2004, 2010; Combe et al., 2015). It will be expected that finely tuned information-dense viral genomes are susceptible to random mutations which cripple their speed of replication and infectivity. Using site-directed mutagenesis to produce randomized mutations in viral genomes (SanJuan et al., 2004; Sanjuan, 2010) up to 40% of such mutated nucleotides result in clear lethals. This is only an estimate as substitutions leading to amino acid replacements (non-synonymous mutations) is not the only mutation hazard a virus can encounter. Silent substitutional changes in the 3rd position 'Wobble Site' in a codon can have functional consequence affecting replication and infective efficacy caused by co-translational pausing/delays as the polypeptide exits the Ribosome. These effects lead to anomalies in folding kinetics due to variations in the composition of the nucleotide triphosphate precursor pool (Buhr et al., 2016). Well-conserved RNA structures in the HCV RNA genome when manipulated at 3rd position synonymous sites can alter the ability of the virus to replicate, and hence infect (Pirakitikulr et al., 2016). The sophistication of viral infectivity and their modus operandi of cell-cell spreading does not end here. To ensure maximal gene complementation defective viral genomes carrying stop codons (Aaskov et al., 2006) can be propagated almost indefinitely (Combe et al., 2015) as “virion clusters” of mixtures of infective and crippled genomes with significant numbers of newly minted virus particles enwrapped in protective membrane vesicles - a type of multiunit nanoparticle. This then constitutes the actual infective dose rather than just a single exported virion entering a nearby target cell to cause a productive infection as is commonly believed (Combe et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2015). However it needs pointing out again that most terrestrial viruses have already evolved established molecular-interactive host-parasite relationships. Many, by themselves are benign and non-cytolytic, such that many initial infections are usually silent and asymptomatic. Physicians and Clinicians now understand that the main health problem is often the unintended tissue damage caused by inflammatory responses by the host's adaptive immune response launched prior to the establishment of chronic infection states e.g. HCV induced hepatitis (in those patients who fail to naturally and quickly clear the initial infection). There seems no end to the inventive strategies that viruses employ to infect and take over their target cells, whether they are bacterial (normal prokaryotes, extremophile archaebacteria) or eukaryotic metazoan cells. If we just consider a recent RNA virome sample for invertebrate hosts, the complex magnitude of which, with the swapping and sharing of viral gene sequences, is staggering in its scope (Shi et al., 2016). In the more extensively studied vertebrates, where similar sharing and gene swapping has occurred, the evasion of both the innate and adaptive immune responses are key facets of the viral life cycle. Recently it has been pointed out that one possible reason why the HIV retrovirus cannot be controlled by conventional immunological vaccines (producing neutralizing antibodies in advance of the infection by a HIV-1 variant) is because the main cellular focus of proviral integration may not be the T lymphocyte or the macrophage/dendritic cell as commonly supposed, but more likely the B lymphocyte (Steele and Dawkins, 2016), the cellular home of the somatic hypermutation mechanism (Franklin et al., 2004; Steele, 2016b; Steele and Lindley, 2017). Thus it was reasonably postulated that HIV by co-opting the adaptive somatic hypermutation mechanism of the antibody system will always be a mutational step ahead of the patient's own adaptive immune response (Steele and Dawkins, 2016). This proposal has not been publicly challenged by mainstream critics in immunology and virology since it was circulated and remains a conceptual option in better understanding the modus operandi of HIV and retroviruses related to it. 11. Criticism of host specificity and survival under space conditions A criticism that has been levelled against the concept of viruses causing disease and contributing to the evolution of life is encapsulated in a single rhetorical question: how can a virus from space know ahead of its coming here the range of organisms that are available with which it can interact? In the previous section we have elaborated on the correct answer to this question: viruses originating in a cosmic context and evolution on the Earth are inextricably intertwined. The host specificity of viruses is maintained only over fairly narrow ranges of species that are defined by their evolutionary history. Thus the influenza A virus can be cultured in hen's eggs so attesting to host specificity to within 50 million years of evolutionary history (and is known to infect many vertebrate and mammalian species). Again the Ebola virus affects the class of primates. The criticism that bacteria and/or viruses are incapable of surviving under the harsh conditions of space is certainly not borne out by all the data that has accumulated over the past 3 decades. Bacteria and viruses embedded in grains of rock, carbonaceous material or ice, are protected effectively from radiation damage and can remain fully viable for millions of years under space conditions. Microorganisms including virions deep frozen within cometary bodies could remain viable indefinitely, and certainly for cosmological timescales. Recent space experiments including those conducted aboard the International Space Station have shown remarkable survival properties of bacteria and viruses. Thus Нiel et al. (2014) have recently conducted an experiment in which plasmid DNA was placed on the outer surface of a TEXUS-49 sounding rocket that was blasted through the atmosphere into space and which subsequently re-entered the atmosphere. The conditions endured by the DNA would closely mimic what actually happens in the high-speed entry of viruses attached to meteor/comet dust. The data of Нiel et al. (2014) show that a significant fraction of DNA remained viable and infective - a clear indication that extraterrestrial viruses can indeed arrive at the Earth in viable form. The microorganism (D. audaxviator) discovered at a depth of 2.8km in a South African gold mine has been found to derive its energy from radiolysis induced by particles emitted from the decay of U, Th and K (Chivian et al., 2008). A bacterium such as D. audaxviator would survive not only in interstellar transits but they would thrive on the energy derived from galactic cosmic rays that reach the interstellar or interplanetary frozen bodies. 12. Retroviral induction model We now also have a far better understanding of clear non-Darwinian and non-Mendelian evolutionary inheritance mechanisms shaping both the immune and central nervous systems in particular (e.g. retroviral and RNA/RT-based Lamarckian Inheritance (Steele, 1979; Gorczynski and Steele, 1980, 1981; Steele et al., 1984; Steele et al., 1998; Steele, 2016a) as well as retroviral/retro-element drivers of segmental duplications and genomic block structure of Ancestral Haplotypes and related non-Darwinian inheritance phenomena of medical significance (Dawkins et al., 1999; Dawkins, 2015; Steele, 2014, 2015; Steele and Lloyd, 2015). The plethora of adaptive Lamarckian-like inheritance mechanisms in general are discussed elsewhere (Campbell and Perkins, 1988; Jablonka and Lamb, 1995; Lindley, 2010; Liu, 2007; Noble, 2013; Mattick, 2012; Liu and Li, 2016a, 2016b) some involving mobile lymphocytes delivering endogenous retroviruses and somatic genes to the germline (Rothenfluh, 1995) or other types of soma-to-germline transfer mechanisms involving vesicles or exosomes have been considered (Spadafora, 2008; Cossetti et al., 2014; Devanapally et al., 2015; Sharma et al., 2015). A clear causal chain of new viruses arriving from space potentially driving evolution on Earth can thus be discerned and rationally understood (Wickramasinghe and Steele, 2016). Indeed LINE retro-element transposition (and Alu repeat element co-mobility, Appendix B) is a normal part of genomic rearrangement during specific neuron commitment, much like the V-> DJ rearrangement in specific B and T lymphocyte commitment in the Immune System (Erwin et al., 2016). With respect to HIV and retroviral evolution in general viz. the genomic duplicative processes generating the polymorphic block (Ancestral) haplotype structure of the human genome, the key concepts can be traced to what is now known as the “Retroviral-Induction Model “ (Dawkins et al., 1999; Steele, 2014) and Steele (2015, p.95). Thus when a retrovirus infects a human cell all measure of mutagenic processes are unleashed, including: AID/APOBEC-deaminase induced C-to-U events leading to C-to-T mutations, Abasic sites, and ssDNA nicks, as well as ADAR-deaminase induced A-to-I RNA editing events. Both of these DNA and RNA deaminations are now identified as strand-biased and codon-context Targeted Somatic Mutations (TSM) in the human cancer genome (Lindley, 2013; Lindley and Steele, 2013; Lindley et al., 2016; Steele and Lindley, 2017). As well as these we have LINE/Alu–retro-element mutagenic mobility (Harris and Liddament, 2004; Chiu et al., 2006; Muotri et al., 2007; Doria et al., 2009; Refsland and Harris, 2013; Jones et al., 2013). So as discussed already LINE/Alu retro-mobility now appears as a normal part of specific synaptic neuronal Brain development (Erwin et al., 2016). RNA editing (A-to-I) targeting neural Alu inverted elements (in the introns, creating alternative spliced isoforms) is an established synaptic neural diversification process in the Brain (Paz-Yaacov et al., 2010). Thus retroviruses and other viruses hypothezed to be liberated in cometary debris trails both can potentially add new DNA sequences to terrestrial genomes and drive further mutagenic change within somatic and germline genomes (Appendix B). Indeed Frank Ryan has termed virus-driven terrestrial evolution with the appropriate catch-phrase, 'virolution' and this concept has been supported and expanded by Oliver and Greene (2012) in the Transposable-Element Thrust Hypothesis (Appendix B). Yohn et al. (2005) have stated that their data are consistent with a retroviral infection that bombarded the genomes of chimpanzees and gorillas independently and concurrently, 3–4 million years ago, with no horizontal transmission being implied. Recently Diehl et al. (2016) have shown that a specific endogenous retrovirus group (ERV-Fc) has somehow come to be spread globally across many mammalian species about 33-15 million years ago. There have also been suggestions that the later evolutionary development of hominids, including enhanced cognitive capacity, may also have viral origins (Villareal, 2004). A plausible externally driven viral involvement appears to have been identified in the development of mammalian placenta in ancestors of all mammals including humans about 150 million years ago (Katzourakis (2013)). 13. Evolution of intelligent complexity Evidence of the role of extraterrestrial viruses in affecting terrestrial evolution has recently been plausibly implied in the gene and transcriptome sequencing of Cephalopods. The genome of the Octopus shows a staggering level of complexity with 33,000 protein-coding genes more than is present in Homo sapiens (Albertin et al., 2015). Octopus belongs to the coleoid sub-class of molluscs (Cephalopods) that have an evolutionary history that stretches back over 500 million years, although Cephalopod phylogenetics is highly inconsistent and confusing (see Carlini et al., 2000; Strugnell et al., 2005, 2006, 2007; Bergmann et al., 2006). Cephalopods are also very diverse, with the behaviourally complex coleoids, (Squid, Cuttlefish and Octopus) presumably arising under a pure terrestrial evolutionary model from the more primitive nautiloids. However the genetic divergence of Octopus from its ancestral coleoid sub-class is very great, akin to the extreme features seen across many genera and species noted in Eldridge-Gould punctuated equilibria patterns (below). Its large brain and sophisticated nervous system, camera-like eyes, flexible bodies, instantaneous camouflage via the ability to switch colour and shape are just a few of the striking features that appear suddenly on the evolutionary scene. The transformative genes leading from the consensus ancestral Nautilus (e.g. Nautilus pompilius) to the common Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) to Squid (Loligo vulgaris) to the common Octopus (Octopus vulgaris, Fig. 5) are not easily to be found in any pre-existing life form – it is plausible then to suggest they seem to be borrowed from a far distant “future” in terms of terrestrial evolution, or more realistically from the cosmos at large. Such an extraterrestrial origin as an explanation of emergence of course runs counter to the prevailing dominant paradigm.
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Bluefoot Bandit Registered: 04/15/10 Posts: 3,693 Loc: Around some corn |
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Scanning. . . . . .
New unit of time Uploading. . . . . . . Processing elimination Warning Warning Profiling detected Surrender all retained sodium to proceed -------------------- Of dreams that wave before the half-shut eye, And of gay castles in the clouds that pass, For ever flushing round a summer sky. -Castle of Indolence
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mͯó Registered: 08/27/08 Posts: 29,556 Loc: Glenn Gould's Fuck Windmill Last seen: 40 minutes, 14 seconds |
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Why pope when you can trope?
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THE BREAKFAST EMPRESS Registered: 11/16/12 Posts: 4,184 Loc: Under The Sea |
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I have had too much coffee but I'm getting poop done, so yay coffee.
-------------------- Pull the blinds and change their minds....
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atmospheric steam specialist Registered: 09/01/17 Posts: 62 Last seen: 6 days, 21 hours |
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Poop bubbles- try it sometime
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Violent Dreams Registered: 09/28/11 Posts: 15,907 Loc: Deutschland |
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It's like an angry walrus that's trying to grow a beak.
-------------------- God kills indiscriminately and so shall we. For no creatures under God are as we are none so like him as ourselves. Want to join a cult? Click for details…
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Just wingin' it. Registered: 06/16/15 Posts: 2,177 Loc: Australia |
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If you put your socks on inside out, does that mean the universe is really wearing your socks?
-------------------- The only reason why T-rex's can't walk backwards is because they're extinct, which perfectly explains why there are no headaches in the rainforest; The parrots eat 'em all. My Drawings
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OTD Keymaster Registered: 09/26/12 Posts: 89,464 Loc: hades |
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-------------------- Orange clock, pencil "They threw me off the hay truck about noon..." *Mark 15:34![]() ![]() Gam zeh ya’avor...
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Registered: 06/30/07 Posts: 33,945 Loc: Planet Piss Last seen: 4 years, 2 months |
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-------------------- http://bunkpolice.com/basic-test Vienna Declaration Salvia Divinorum The Docudrahma
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Registered: 05/25/07 Posts: 11,707 Loc: Mabase |
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...and when you really think about it the whole kit and kaboodle can be seen as a can of stockings. Dehydrated of course. I guess what I am trying to say is never forget that mitochondria sounds like diarrhea. Thank you.
-------------------- These are not the answers you should be questioning.
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Stranger Registered: 06/09/18 Posts: 10 Last seen: 5 years, 6 months |
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Registered: 05/25/07 Posts: 11,707 Loc: Mabase |
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Quote: That's real fucking cute but you and jesus both know you'd need a spork to rope anyone into that situation. Psh. Thanks Eisenhower
-------------------- These are not the answers you should be questioning.
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Registered: 06/30/07 Posts: 33,945 Loc: Planet Piss Last seen: 4 years, 2 months |
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-------------------- http://bunkpolice.com/basic-test Vienna Declaration Salvia Divinorum The Docudrahma
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Registered: 07/11/99 Posts: 8,399 |
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Violent Dreams Registered: 09/28/11 Posts: 15,907 Loc: Deutschland |
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Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum.
-------------------- God kills indiscriminately and so shall we. For no creatures under God are as we are none so like him as ourselves. Want to join a cult? Click for details…
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OTD Keymaster Registered: 09/26/12 Posts: 89,464 Loc: hades |
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That doesn’t make sense!
-------------------- Orange clock, pencil "They threw me off the hay truck about noon..." *Mark 15:34![]() ![]() Gam zeh ya’avor...
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Orange clock, pencil

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