I just finished it. Sorry I have to edit and upload the figures later
A Hallucinogen Hunt
Christian Calderon
Art History of Latin America
CCSF
October 21st 2004
Abstract
It has been proven through archaeological context and artistic representation that various psychoactive substances have stood abundant throughout the history of Mesoamerican culture (1). These hallucinogens served a divinatory purpose to the indigenous of ancient Mesoamerica. The use of hallucinogens found in ancient Mesoamerica could not compare to that found in the history of civilizations in Europe (2). When the Spanish chroniclers came to Mesoamerica, they mentioned in their writings a great number of plants with intoxicating, stimulating or narcotic effects; these plants were unknown in the Old World (3). When the Spanish began to witness these substances, the church began to fear them, believing they where to possess only demonic purpose. When the Spanish took action against their phobia to the New World hallucinogens, the indigenous started to hide their ways and some started to change them. These substances are believed to have played an important role in medicine, religion, social development and the cultural structure of many groups across the new world. To have discovered these substances, it would have taken centuries of trial and error.
Introduction
The use of hallucinogens was suggested to be abundant before the fall of the Aztec empire. Through archeological context, artistic representation and written documentation we have been able to broaden our perspective on ancient Mesoamerican cultures that participated in the use of hallucinogens. According to Spanish documentation, the Aztecs abundantly used three main hallucinogens, peyotl, teonan?catl and ololiuqui. There is another possibility of a hallucinogen derived from the Bufo marinus toad, used by the Olmec and Maya. After discovering the psychic effects of what became sacred elements, the primitive cultures of Mesoamerica believed they could commit the supernatural and communicate with the outer world through their altered state. Now theories have been raised that cultural art, religion and lifestyle may have been based on what was held to be sacred elements contained and used by Mesoamerican cultures.
Peyotl (Lophophora williamsii)
Peyote (lophophora williamsii) is a member of the Cactaceae family; the main hallucinogenic alkaloid in this plant is mescaline, although there are 56 other individual alkaloid substances in peyote that may contribute to its hallucinogenic properties. Currently, peyote is used in macro-religious ceremonies in central and northern Mexico and is the basis of religious cults among Indians of Mexico, the United States and Canada. The sacred cactus that the Aztecs referred to as peyotl may have been the greatest and most traded hallucinogen in ancient Mesoamerica.
The time and culture that discovered this species of Cactaceae are unknown. Richard Evans Schultes Ph.D stated:
?The earliest European reports of peyote intimate that the Chichimecas and Toltecs of Mexico were acquainted with it as early as 300 B.C. (4)?
We currently know that the time frame of this assumption is false, due to the fact that the Toltecs did not arrive in the basin of Mexico until the 8th century A.D. and the Chichimecas a short while before. Professor Schultes?s statement was based from an early Spanish chronicler by the name of Fray Bernardino de Sahag?n. Fray Bernardino de Sahag?n knew that Peyote was used by the Chichimeca and Toltec, and estimated they used it at least 1,890 years before his arrival. Sahag?n lived most of his adult life with the indigenous tribes of Mesoamerica. During the 16th century A.D., he recorded the use of peyote with the Chichimecas:
"There is another herb like tunas [Opuntia spp.] of the earth. It is called Peiotl. It is white. It is found in the north country. Those who eat or drink it see visions either frightful or laughable. This intoxication lasts two or three days and then ceases. It is a common food of the Chichimeca, for it sustains them and gives them courage to fight and not feel fear nor hunger nor thirst. And they say that it protects them from all danger."
He was the first to document the use of peyote. It is no surprise that the Chichimecas used peyote. Peyote is native to the Chihuahuan Desert, which is the same area where the Chichimecas hunted and gathered. It is likely the Toltecs used peyote, I believe that the Toltecs discovered the use of peyote through a more primitive northern culture and not through ?trail and error? gathering.
I have come across only three archaeological finds of peyote. They have been documented at only two sites; the Shumla Caves in southwest Texas and shelter CM-79 near Cuatro Cienegas, Coahuila, Mexico. Excavations of the Shumla Caves occurred in the 1930?s and were sponsored by the Witte Museum; since that time, dozens of excavations in similar dry rock shelters have failed to produce any evidence of widespread peyote use. The three individual samples from Shumla Caves were statistically indistinguishable and were determined a mean age of 5195 ? 20 radiocarbon years BP and for the specimen from the Cuatro Cienegas site, an age of 835 ? 35 radiocarbon years BP (5). These radiocarbon dates on excavated peyote document its use for roughly 6,000 calendar years. The alkaloid mescaline has a remarkable stability and may stay intact for thousands of years. Although this carbon 14 data is rather old and most likely off by a few hundred or even a few thousand years, it suggests that peyote was used north of Mesoamerica before any Mesoamerican cultures were using it. Because peyote is native to the northern desert region above Mesoamerica, this suggestion may very well be true. This information adds to my theory that peyote was brought down from the north into Mesoamerica by barter or the migration of northern cultures into Mesoamerica.
There is another theory that peyote was simultaneously and independently discovered by a number of tribes over the centuries. This may be possible, although I find it very unlikely due to the fact that there are thousands of species of cacti around the Mesoamerican region. It is also the case that 90% of all the world's plants produce no alkaloids whatsoever (such as mescaline, psilocybin, caffeine, nicotine etc). One must understand that for a cactus such as peyote to contain 57 individual alkaloids, it is truly unique. In addition, peyote (Lophophora williamsii) is currently endangered and almost all of its cultivation is done by humans; the ancient status of the Cactaceae is unknown, considering that it is unknown if the plant was cultivated in ancient times and its relatively slow growth. For numerous tribes to have independently found this cactus through trial and error over the Mesoamerican region (see figure 1.a) must be an unlikely coincidence. I find it more the case that this plant was traded throughout Mesoamerica and knowledge of this plant was passed through barter, communication, and perhaps war.
At the site of Monte Alban there was a ceramic snuffing pipe with a deer holding a peyote button in its mouth (see figure 1.b). The pipe was estimated to be from 500 B.C. Could this be proof that the early Zapotecs used peyote?
The Aztecs adapted many things from different cultures (6); one being the use of peyote. We know through Spanish documents that the Aztec participated in the peyote tradition. Tarascans received peyote by long distance trade, among goods such as cacao, animal skins, seashells, fine bird feathers, turquoise, rock crystal, serpentine, amber, pyrite, jadeite, gold, silver, copal, green and red obsidian and slaves (7). The Huichol Indians of Mexico, make an annual sacred pilgrimage to Wirikuta to collect, with complex ceremonies, enough crowns of the cactus for use during the coming year (see fig. 1.c) (8). Peyote must have been a popular trade item; it has a very long natural shelf life, due to its mescaline content. And it is easy to transport. It is possible that more tribes participated in the divine practice and use of peyote then we are currently aware of.
Teonan?catl (Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Conocybe)
In addition to peyote are the sacred mushrooms referred to by the Aztecs as teonan?catl (flesh of god). Ethnomycologist Gordon Wasson suggests that the majority of the sacred mushrooms of Mesoamerica belong to the genus Psilocybe, and a few quite possibly belong to the genera Panaeolus and Conocybe. Currently, in Mesoamerica, these mushrooms are used in the Mexican state of Oaxaca among some of the indigenous inhabitants, such as the Mazatecas, Zapotecas, and Mixtecas. Due to the westernization of indigenous peoples in Mexico, some of Indians are no longer using the mushroom in religious ceremonies. From the mid 1900?s to the late 1970?s it was popular to visit Oaxaca to participate in the mushroom ceremonies; in fact, this ceremony can still be participated in and seen in the town of Huautla de Jim?nez.
When the Spanish started to witness the use of the teonan?catl, they persecuted anyone using them. Persecution drove the Indian practices into the hinterland (9). By the time the Spanish arrived in Mesoamerica, the mushroom influence was most likely spread though all the cultures of Mesoamerica. The influence of teonan?catl would have been spread by cultural communication, barter, and even war. In addition to this time period, Terence McKenna suggests mushrooms may have been a trade item wanted by the southern American Indian cultures (11). Cultures such as the Mimbres have produced numerous pieces of art containing depictions of mushrooms.
I believe that the classic Maya used mushrooms, most likely in religious ceremonies. Hundreds of mushrooms stone artifacts have been found, and they are mostly dated to the classic period, although some are said to be dated as far back as 1000 B.C. (see figure 2.a). Besides the Mayan art that survived the conquest, we only have Mayan codices on which to assess Mayan customs and beliefs. Within two of these remaining works, the Popul Vuh and the Annals of Cakchiquels, are references to psychoactive fungi, but there is no indication as to the extent of their role within Mayan belief systems (10). It is believed that the Maya made fermented beverage with the hallucinogenic mushroom. As a method of inoculation they would receive an enema, with the alleged substance (see fig. 2.b).
It is believed by many that the Toltecs participated in the use of mushrooms. In the theory of Mesoamerican cultural Influence and adaptation, the Toltecs may have been influenced by barter or communication with the Maya. One of the influences may have well been the item in question, the hallucinogenic mushroom. If the Toltecs believed the same reminiscences of Quetzalcoatl, as the Aztecs, the Toltecs may have participated in the use of Mushrooms. Concerning Aztec belief and Quetzalcoatl?s interaction with the hallucinogenic mushrooms, the mushroom use may have been older than Quetzalcoatl himself.
Ololiuqui (Turbina/Rivea corymbosa, Ipomoea violacea)
Ololiuqui has been identified as a small lentil-like seed that comes from a vine called coatlxoxouhqui, which has been identified as a morning glory. LSA (lysergic acid amides) is the main compound responsible for the hallucinogenic effect of ololiuqui. Today, ololiuqui is being used by the Zapotecs, Chinantecs, Mazatecs, and Mixtecs. Oliliuhqui has been used since prehispanic times by the Aztecs and related tribes; just as the sacred mushrooms and the cactus peyotl have been used in their religious ceremonies for medical and religious purposes (12).
As the other hallucinogens found in Mesoamerica, we know much about the use of ololiuqui from the Spanish chroniclers. Documented in the Florentino Codex, ololiuqui is considered to be a ?gift from the devil.? Most of the studies conducted on ololiuqui was from Dr. Francisco Hernandez, who wrote about its religious use among the Aztecs between 1570 and 1575. Dr. Francisco Hernandez was the first to identify the plant containing ololiuqui to be a morning glory.
According to Peter T. Furst, coatlxoxouhqui has been depicted in mural paintings at Teotihuacan and Tepantitla; one mural is suggested to show the water goddess with a stylized vine of the sacred hallucinogenic morning glory (fig 3.a)(13). I find some of the plants, sea shells, and people in the murals tend to be less stylized and more physically accurate in the artistic depiction (see fig. 3.b); this helps scholars identify the botanical species depicted in the murals. In one mural, I found many plants containing similar flowers to the Rivea corymbosa and Ipomoea violacea species (see fig. 3.c), and even Nicotiana rustica (tobacco). Nicotiana rustica is said to have been more potent in ancient times; nevertheless, it is still not classified as a hallucinogen.
Bufo marinus, Bufo alvarius
Bufo marinus is a toad that contains a confusingly active compound called bufotenine; bufotenine is very toxic and it has debatable psychedelic property. In fact, some scholars argue that it has no psychedelic property and any visionaries induced by bufotenine are due to the poisonous compounds. Bufo alvarius is another toad that contains bufotenine as well as 5-MeO-DMT; 5-MeO-DMT is a very psychedelic compound and has tremendous vision inducing effects.
Bufo marinus is your common cane toad. Bufo marinus is a very resilient, adapting, and efficient colonizer. Bufo marinus toads have caused many problems in areas they have been introduced to. In 1965 an official from Dade County Florida wanted to put a bounty on the Bufo marinus toad for its abundant problems (14). Australians also find this toad hard to eradicate. On the other hand, Bufo alvarius is an endangered frog only found in the southwestern United States, Sonora region (see fig. 4.a); hence the common name given to Bufo alvarius, the Sonora Desert Toad. Without question Bufo alvarius venom is hallucinogenic; 5-MeO-DMT is actually 10 times more potent then DMT, which is found in ololiuqui. On the other hand, whether bufotenine found in Bufo marinus is psychoactive or not has been very questionable.
Jonathan Ott conducted a study to determine if bufotenine is in fact psychoactive, finding 5 separate methods to be psychoactive:
This chart displays 4 instances of bufotenine resulting ?not psychoactive? by 2 different references and 9 instances resulting ?psychoactive? by 5 different references. This argument shows that bufotenine clearly has some kind of effect. The question is if the effect can be classified as a psychedelic.
There has also been some debate on whether the toad used for hallucinogenic purpose in ancient Mesoamerica was Bufo marinus, or Bufo alvarius. Andrew Weil and Wade Davis published an article in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology hypothesizing that Bufo alvarius was used, based on iconographic and mythological representations of toads and on a number of speculative ethnographic reports. They reject Bufo marinus as a candidate, greatly because of the toxicity levels in its venom.
The Olmec are alleged to have used the hallucinogenic toad in religious ritual. In the June 1982 issue of Current Anthropology, Allison Kennedy states that what has long been interpreted as a jaguar in Olmec art actually represents a toad. In this theory she gives many examples of how Olmec art symbolizes the toad physically and metaphorically. According to John W. Hoopes of the Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Ancient Bufo marinus bones have been found In the Olmec site of La Venta (15); unfortunately I have not been able to find any estimated dating on the organic material found. Field herping (looking for reptiles and amphibians in the wild) conducted by herpetologist and ?herpers? find it popular to hunt in the site of La Venta; their studies show that Bufo marinus is the most abundant amphibian in the region. Although according to recent study by Ben Morril and Utah State University the Trans-Mexican Neovolcanic Belt may have affected and may continue to affect the colonization patterns of the Bufo marinus toad and the Bufo alavarius toad. No reports of Bufo alavarius have been found in this area. Michael Coe says the Olmec used bufotenine as a hallucinogen derived from Bufo marinus. Unfortunately there is not enough evidence to prove that the Olmec did or did not use Bufo marinus as a psychedelic. But if they did use the toad as a psychedelic, it would not be a surprise.
There is question of whether the Izapa used the toad as a psychedelic. Many scholars have argued whether the stylized animal in stela 6 is in fact a Bufo marinus/alvarius, or a fat jaguar, or even perhaps a stylized fat alligator similar to the reptile in stela 25. There is also no question that there are frogs depicted in the scenery of certain artifacts. The question is what role or significance is the toad to the Izapa. Unfortunately, there is no evidence to prove whether or not they used the toad as a hallucinogen. But it is always possible.
There is allegedly enough evidence for many scholars to say that the Maya used the hallucinogenic toad as a psychedelic and to go in to the extent of how it was used. The Maya have shown to provide toads through artistic representation abundantly (see figure 4.b); there was even a Mayan frog whistle shaped as a toad (see figure 4.c). The Mayan Curanderos, which are healers, would use the venom from the toads to create medicine and make potions. To extract the venom, they would irritate the toad. With the venom in small bowls, they would repeatedly pass the bowl over a fire to treat it. Whatever was left in the bowl became hard and would then be rolled into pills.
Many people have contributed their investigations and experiments to create the conclusions and theories about ancient Mesoamerican hallucinogen used. Peyotl, teonan?catl, ololiuqui and the hallucinogenic frog are minimal discoveries when compared to thousands of others by the Mesoamerican people. The ancestors of the Ancient Mesoamerican people have also discovered and will continue to discover new hallucinogens and medicine for their cultures. Cultures across the Mesoamerican region have made accomplishments in their findings for the unknown benefit to future generations of the world. Accomplishments of studying, copying and manipulating the compounds and active alkaloids in certain plants and animals discovered by the Mesoamerican people have been proven to create new pharmaceuticals and therapeutics that contribute to modern society. To have discovered what were considered divinities and sacred elements it would have taken millennia of trial and error. With a history proven hard to follow, I owe much gratitude to the primitive Mesoamerican people and their ancestors, to have made the important discoveries that have influenced the rest of the world.
References
1. Schultes, R. E., 1998: The Heffter Review of Psychedelic Research. Vol. 1, pp. 1-7
2. Wasson, R. G., 1963: Notes on the Present Status of Ololiuhqui and the Other Hallucinogens of Mexico. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 161-212.
3. Hofmann, A., 1971: Teonan?catl and Ololiuqui, two ancient magic drugs of Mexico. Bulletin on Narcotics, Vol. 1, pp. 3-14
4. Schultes, R. E., 1938. "Peyote, an American Indian Heritage from Mexico." El Mexico Antiguo 4, nos. 4-6: 199-208.
5. Texas A&M University website, 2004: http://www.texasacademyofscience.org/2004%20tas%20program.pdf
6. Torres, E. L., personal interview, Nov 11th 2004.
7. Pollard, H. P., 1993. The Prehispanic Tarascan State ?Tar?acuri's Legacy?, pp 119 University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
8. Meyerhoff, B. G., 1974. Peyote Hunt. ?The Sacred Journey of the Huichol Indians?, pp 112-188 Ithaca, Cornell University Press.
9. Schultes, R.E, 1998: Integration. Antiquity of the Use of New World Hallucinogens Vol. 5, pp. 9-18
10. Powell, S. G., 2000: The Psilocybin Solution. Chapter 2, A.K. ?An Ancient Form of Communion? pp. 25-36
11. McKenna, T., 1992: Food Of The Gods. Bantam Books, New York.
12. Hofmann, A., 1971: Teonan?catl and Ololiuqui, two ancient magic drugs of Mexico. Bulletin on Narcotics, Vol. 1, pp. 3-14
13. Furst, P. T., 1974: Art and Environment in Native America ?Hallucinogens in Precolumbian Art? Texas Technical University, Special Publications of the Museum, no. 7, pp. 55-1 02.
14. Morrill, H, B., 2004: Phylogeography of the Marine Toad Bufo marinus across the Eastern Extension of the Trans-Mexican Neovolcanic Belt. Utah State University, Department of Biology.
15. University of Kansas website, 2004: http://www.ku.edu/~hoopes/506/Lectures/Olmecs.html
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