PSILOCYBIAN MUSHROOMS IN NEW ZEALAND
Until the late 1970's, the fact that psilocybin containing mushrooms grew in New Zealand (NZ) was known to very few. The perception of those interested in psychedelic drugs was that `magic mushrooms' were an Australian phenomena, and that the only mushrooms of this nature to be found in NZ had arrived via the post. Indeed, all of the analyses performed by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) for the police at this time were upon P. cubensis which had been sent to NZ in the mail, and intercepted by customs. Not until the early l980's did a more general awareness appear, within the psychedelic drug-using subculture, that psilocybin containing mushrooms could be found in both islands of NZ. It is likely that persons experienced with the Australian situation recognized C. cyanescens and P. tasmaniana growing in the New Plymouth sand dunes, particularly at Khomenii beach which is popular with surfers. At about the same time, a botanist from the United Kingdom recognized P. semilanceata (liberty cap) growing on the Otago peninsula, near the city of Dunedin in the South Island. The botanist informed a circle of friends with an interest in psychedelics, and the knowledge spread rapidly by word of mouth.
Thus, it was not until l982 that articles with titles such as `Magic Mushroom Danger Warning' (Unsigned l982) began to appear in the press, and occasional reports of prosecutions appeared. As in Australia, media reports were usually quite inaccurate in describing the effects of the mushrooms, while giving precise instructions as to where they could be found. For example, in the aforementioned `Danger warning' (Unsigned, l982), a New Plymouth-based alcohol and drug abuse officer is quoted as saying that "it (the mushroom effect) was like setting off a time bomb..... most common was an instant `high' which put stress on the respiratory and heart functions....." The article goes on to say: "They were very dangerous, he warned. People had died from them." At the same time, there were reports on national television showing mushrooms being picked in the New Plymouth paddocks. Consequently, there was a sudden and dramatic increase in popular knowledge of the mushrooms, resulting in large-scale autumnal pilgrimages to this area of the country.
As in the U.S.A., the New Zealand police were not vigorous in attempting to prosecute mushroom pickers, and tended to avoid involvement unless specifically called by a farmer. Attempts to prosecute cases were hampered by the wording of the Misuse of Drugs Act, l975, which declared Psilocybe mexicana Heim and P. cubensis, neither of which have ever been found growing in NZ (although the latter has been intercepted in the incoming mail), to be prohibited plants, while psilocybine and psilocine were class A substances. Most judges, with one notable exception (Unsigned l986) felt that a mushroom was not a substance (chemical) and thus prosecutions tended to fail. For this reason, an Amendment to the Act was passed in early l988 which declared that all members of the genera Psilocybe and Panaeolus were prohibited plants. This has not, however, led to a marked increase in prosecutions and sentences continue to be mild.
NZ is an isolated country with a prolific native flora. While the importation of cattle may have been responsible for introducing P. cyanescens to NZ, there are at least five indigenous species, four of which have yet to be described in detail and named (Johnson and Buchanan l988, D.S.I.R., Pers. Comm.). The fifth is Psilocybe novo zealandiae, which has been characterized by Guzm?n (l983). P. novo zealandiae is found primarily in the native forests of the southern South Island, and as such is unlikely to have played a significant role in human ingestion. This latter species is not psychoactive.
Copelandia cyanescens (`blue meanies') predominates in the New Plymouth region, an area of intensive dairy farming. The mushrooms appear in autumn, most commonly under lupine bushes in coastal paddocks. In the lower South Island, particularly the Otago area and Dunedin city, the species consumed by users is P. semilanceata (`liberty cap').
In so far as epithets are concerned, the most popular term is `magic mushrooms.' Neither the Australian term `gold tops' nor the English and American `liberty caps' has been widely adopted, although the term `blue meanies' is occasionally used to refer to P. cyanescens. In a study involving in depth interviews (and follow up questionnaires) of 150 people, carried out between l982 and l989 all over NZ (Jansen, Pers. Comm. l989) it was clear that many users knew that `gold tops' referred to an "Australian" mushroom (P. cubensis) which was different from those used in NZ.
In the study referred to above, the only case requiring emergency room treatment was a musician who, due to impaired coordination, had fallen and cut his head. The hospital staff were not told of his intoxication, he was sutured without difficulty, and departed the emergency room with his companions. All persons in the study were asked if they knew of anyone who had required acute medical treatment, and except for the case discussed above there were no other instances known to those in the sample. According to Dr. K. L. R. Jansen, there are no reported case histories in the NZ medical literature. However, 3 out of the 150 cases (Approximately 2%) suffered prolonged psychological difficulties following their mushroom experiences. Two of these cases involved the precipitation of a severe paranoid psychosis, eventually requiring psychiatric treatment which was still in progress at the time of the interview. In both cases there were obvious predisposing features, but there was clearly no pre-existing psychosis while following the mushroom experiences there was frank and prolonged psychosis. These cases illustrate the point which has often been made concerning psychedelic drugs: that there are certain persons who are psychologically at serious risk from these substances, and must be urged to avoid them.
In terms of physical effects, no evidence was found to support the claims made in the `Danger Warning' that psilocybian mushrooms placed a major stress on the heart and respiratory systems, nor is there any evidence of any deaths occurring in NZ due to psilocybian mushroom ingestion. The potentially lethal practice of driving back to Auckland city from New Plymouth while intoxicated on mushrooms has not yet resulted in a serious accident. There were several descriptions of a very rapid start to the altered state which might be described as an `instant high', but nothing to indicate that this was a serious threat to health.
The major physical danger from ingesting psilocybin mushrooms in NZ arises from the use of fungicidal and other agricultural sprays (c.f., see Young et al l982), which have been used in both the North and the South Island by farmers and enforcement authorities. Karl L. R. Jansen, (a medical doctor from the University of Auckland) has attended a person at their home suffering from marked weakness of the respiratory muscles, with attendant shortness of breath, following ingestion of sprayed mushrooms. The signs and symptoms of poisoning continued for at least 18 hours after the return of a normal mental state, indicating that the muscle weakness was unlikely to have been due to psilocybin which may sometimes cause weakness acutely. Others ingesting the mushrooms from this paddock also suffered various forms of muscle weakness (e.g. lazy eyelid, which is extremely unlikely to have a `psychological' origin), extending in all cases for many hours beyond the end of the change in consciousness. In several cases, strong and robust men with extensive experience of psychedelic drugs collapsed while crossing the road due to severe muscle weakness - a potentially life-threatening situation. It is thus clear that spraying mushrooms represents a greater public health threat than the mushrooms themselves, and should be discontinued.
Finally, it was suggested by several persons in the study that the Maori (the indigenous race) may have used psilocybin mushrooms. This possibility was also mentioned by R.G. Wasson on a visit to NZ, in relation to the theory which holds that concepts of divinity may have arisen in primitive peoples out of psychedelic drug experiences. In fact, there is no evidence of any sort to support the use of these mushrooms by the pre-conquest Maori. The Maori are quite distinctive for having used no consciousness altering drugs of any kind, and were highly skilled at treating food to remove toxic substances. This conclusion was supported by all of NZ's Professors of Maori studies, and many other scholars of the Maori culture, in a series of consultations carried out in l988. It appears that the Maori culture represents at least one instance of a complex and rich theology and mythology, involving priests (tohunga's) and the frequent invocation of deities in daily life, which did not require the use of consciousness-altering chemicals.
Some New Zealand Psilocybian Mushrooms:
Copelandia cyanescens:
In New Zealand, this species is mainly found on the west coast of the North Island in the New Plymouth area especially in the paddocks near the airport and in the dunes at Khomenii Beach. Also at Whatipu beach near Auckland and some west coast beaches near Wellington (Otaki and Foxton). They tend to occur in the lupin covered zone between pasture and sand. The New Plymouth lupins have recently been decimated by disease and the effect upon fungal growth has yet to be determined.
P. aucklandii:
Documented Locations: In New Zealand, 25 km north of Auckland, Wood Hill State Park. Gregarious on brown clay soil partially covered with pine needles of Pinus radiata D. Don, in a mixed pine and dicotyledonous native tree forest.
P. australiana:
In New Zealand, 20 km West of Auckland near Oratia. Fruits in April. This species is very similar to P. cyanescens Wakefield.
mj excerpted from Magic Mushrooms of Australia and new Zealand. The NZ portial was written by Allen, MErlin and jansen. 1990. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs.
P. semilanceata:
In New Zealand, this species appears largely confined to the south of Cook Island, in particular the Otago Peninsula and Mount Cook in soil in high-altitude grasslands and has been observed in Mackenzie: vic. Mt. Cook, Otago Lakes and in the vicinity of Queenstown. Has been used recreationally since the early l980's. There is a specimen in the DSIR collection which was found on a suburban lawn in Auckland; also collected Southeast of Wakefield, Inangahua Junction.
P. subaeruginosa:
Johnston and In 1995, this species was reported from New Zealand at Auckland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Wanganui, Nelson, Buller, Southland as being common on small pieces of buried wood on rough coastal farmlands and pastures and especially on sandy soil, and in gardens, especially on mulches of Pinus radiata bark. The presence of psilocybine in this species in Australia was detected in 1970 and three years later, Dr. Malcomb Hall reported its use as a recreational drug.
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